|
Index Page
by Jayaram V
The Ajivikas belonged to an ancient Indian sect of naked
wandering ascetics who believed in karma, fatalism and extreme
passivity.
They were a popular sect during the reign of Bindusara, the
Mauryan emperor. He and his wife were said to be followers of
this section. The sect is also mentioned in the edicts of
Asoka. The sect was founded prior to the founding of Buddhism and
thrived for a very long time before it disappeared
completely, like the Lokayatas and many other sects. In its hey
days during the 6th Century BCE the sect enjoyed considerable
following, but disappeared gradually due
to the intense prejudice against its doctrines by established religions
like Brahmanism, Jainism and Buddhism and also because it was
patronized mostly by people of lower castes who were considered unclean
and untouchable. Some beliefs and practices of the sect seem to
have found their way into Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism
Whatever we know about this sect comes to us in
the form of fragmentary references found in the Buddhist and Jain
texts and they are not reliable sources of information. The
Barabar caves belonging to the Ajivika sect are located in the
state of Bihar.
It is possible
that even the word Ajivikas (lifeless beings) might be a derogatory
reference to the sect used by its rivals out of scorn and not the
actual name of the sect. Since we do not know what they were actually
called, we have no option but to use this term to refer this sect,
which at one was one of the most popular ascetic traditions in India
outside the fold of Brahmanism. Gosala probably taught the
doctrine of inaction as a solution to prevent the formation of
karma. The sect probably allowed life or fate to unfold itself
without any interruption from the willful and intentional actions
of individuals. Since it implied showing no sign of active
involvement others might have called them people who lead
lifeless existence.
The Ajivikas existed as an organized ascetic sect in ancient
India long before the birth of the Buddha and Mahavira and enjoyed
widespread popularity among people who lived on the fringes of Vedic
society as dasyus, dasas and low caste people.
t was essentially
a tribal, rural and folk tradition that acquired a status of its
own due to the depth of its appeal and doctrine that discounted
all effort and promoted surrender to the flow of life as dictated
by the will of God. It was a doctrine that emphasized flowing with
flow rather than against it. The concept of sanyasa or renunciation
of effort agrees essentially with the doctrine of the Ajivikas,
because they believed that human effort was a waste of time and
energy since man's fate was already predetermined by the will of
God and the best way to enjoy it was to flow with it, accepting
life as it was handed out by God's plan and living without remorse
and regret.
According to tradition both the Buddha and Mahavira spent some
time in the company of Makkali Gosala, one of the chief proponents
of Ajivika sect, who probably lived between 560 and 484 BC. The
Jain texts indicate a possible rivalry and even confrontation
between the Mahavira and Gosala. The Jain version of the story
suggests that after their confrontation, Gosala died in
disgrace, having admitted to his weaknesses and character flaws.
However, this may not be entirely true.
We are
not sure what influence the teachings of Gosala exerted on the
Buddha and Mahavira, but their relationship
seems to have been unsteady and temporary. While we do not know
what exactly the Ajivikas believed or practiced, we have indications
to believe that they practiced an ancient form of Saivism, and
their doctrines had some affinity with the ancient Pasupatha and Kalamukha
sects. The Ajivikas probably wandered as naked monks, like the monks
of the Digambara sect of Jainism, begging for alms in the
villages and using magic and fortune-telling to attract people and
gain their attention. While we have no clear evidence, it is believed
that Bindusara, the father of Asoka, patronized Ajivikas and himself
might have become an Ajivika in the later part of his life.
Much of what we know about this sect comes to us from the information
we have about the life and teachings of Makkali Gosala, who was
probably one of the most popular religious personalities of his
time. Born in a low caste family of humble background, Gosala
derived his name because of his birth in a cowshed (Gosala) of a
wealthy merchant named Gobahula, where his father left his
mother Bhadda when she was pregnant. According to another
legend, he was slave who escaped from his master without any
clothes and thereafter became a naked wandering ascetic.
Gosala was inspired in his early life by his own father Mankha, a religious
bard who made a living by selling images. Although he came from
a humble family, he had a religious bent of mind and became
acquainted with the Vaisheshika and Samkhya philosophies.
But for
several years he continued to lead a normal family life, following
his father's occupation, before he was drawn to the Ajivika sect.
His asceticism, knowledge and sincerity attracted the attention
of many Ajivikas who, according to Bhagavatisutra, believed him
to be their 24th Thirthankara. His popularity drew to him many educated
urban people from higher castes, including people from princely
families such as the Gautama and Mahavira, who as young aspirants,
dissatisfied with the Vedic traditions and ritualism, were looking
at that time for more meaningful answers to the existential problems
of human life.
According to tradition Mahavira spent about six years in the
company of Gosala while Gautama spent about three or four years.
(According to some historians Buddha was born after the passing
away of Gosala).
The Avashyakasutra of Jina Dasa states that Gosala parted ways with
his two famous disciples because of some irreconcilable differences
over some doctrinal issues. The separation resulted in some rivalry
and religious debates between Ajivikas and the followers of Jainism
and Buddhism. But it did not dent the popularity of Gosala or the
Ajivika sect. After this incident, Gosala stayed at Sravasthi in
the house of a potter woman and continued his preaching and practice
of the Ajivika doctrine. During this period he also codified the
scriptures of Ajivikas in consultation with the other luminaries
of the sect. The last part of his life was spent in silence, dance
and drunkenness. During the last moments of his life he said to
have remarked that the form of Hallah1
(God) was like the root of a bamboo and one
should play it like vina, a musical instrument.
The teachings of
Gosala were supposed to have been compiled into an ancient Dravidian
text called Navakadir, fragments of which can now be found in the
famous Tamil novel, Manimekalai. Some historians draw a
similarity between the lives of Gosala and Jesus.
Some essential elements of Ajivika doctrine are available to
us in the Jain and Buddhist texts. But since these are the interpretations
of rival sects, one need to view them with a certain degree of caution
and skepticism. These texts describe that Gosala believed in Niyati
or predeterminism, which is more or less akin to what is more popularly
known in the west as fatalism. According to this doctrine2,
the world evolves and moves in a predetermined way, like the unfolding
of the design of a tree hidden in its seed. There is no place for
free will in the events of the world or in the birth and death of
beings. Beings are not born on their own accord or according to
their free will. Everything happens according to a predetermined
plan or niyati based on its natural state (svabhava) and some fortuitous
occurrence (sangati).
According to the Buddhist and Jain sources, Ajivikas believed
in fate rather than karma. Gosala said to have believed that the
suffering and evil experienced by a being came not from his previous
karma but from the fate to which he was subject.
The Ajivikas discounted
all human effort. Everything came out of fate and nothing could
be done to change it. So there was no use fighting against it. They
believed that the number of souls was infinite. They also believed
in the reincarnation of souls and cycles of creation. They used
dance and music to achieve ecstatic states of consciousness. They
indulged in the resuscitation of the dead through esoteric practice
of vital energy transference, called pautta parihara. It is believed
that the doctrine of Gosala had some aspects of the atomic theory
of the Vaisheshikas and the philosophy of Samkhya. They also
practiced some weird forms of meditation, such as swinging from
the trees in a bat like posture (vagguli-vata).
According to some versions the Ajivikas were an atheistic
sect. However it is possible that the Ajivikas actually believed
in the will of God which is synonymous with fate and surrendered to it without
question, like the present day Sanyasis/ Since Buddhism and
Jainism did not believe in the existence of absolute God nor in
any divine design hidden in creation or unfolding of life, they
might have
interpreted the beliefs and practices of Ajivikas as fatalistic
to prove their point.
The differences among Ajivikas, Buddhists and Jains was
mainly with regard to the role of an individual
in suffering and the nature of karma. According to one version
differences arose between Gosala and Mahavira because some two
close followers of Mahavira, Savvanubhuti and Sunakkhatta, both
women, defected to Gosala.
The Ajivika doctrine was probably a step ahead of Samkhya's basic
notion that the cause was always hidden in its effect. However it
is not clear how they reconciled with the Samkhya's assertion that
Prakriti or nature was an unintelligent and mechanical force or
its belief in the non existence of God. The doctrine of Gosala consisted
of six parts: gain (labham), loss (alabham), happiness (sukham),
sorrow (duham), life (jiviyam) and death (maranam). These are the
pairs of opposites, which according to Buddhism, Jainism and Hinduism,
need to be transcended to overcome human suffering and become free.
While we are not sure in what context Gosala used these principles,
it is possible that he might have shown his followers the way to
transcend them and achieve equanimity of the mind.
It is interesting that a popular sect like Ajivikas disappeared
completely from the Indian soil. The increasing popularity of Buddhism
and Jainism, some doctrinal issues that were difficult to practice
and uphold, lack of royal patronage and the absence of leadership
following the departure of Gosala might have contributed to the
decline. Their religious texts were not preserved probably because
they were not composed in Sanskrit and incomprehensible and unacceptable
to the ancient Vedic scholars. Part of their philosophy might have
found its way into some ancient Saiva sects and some popular Hindu
beliefs. According to some inscriptions a form of Ajivika sect might
have survived as late as 13th or 14th century. However we are not
sure whether the name was used to refer actual Ajivika sect or followers
of digambara sect of Jainism. Although it has disappeared altogether,
the Ajivika sect seems to have left its footprints in the Saivism
of the Post Mauryan period and the popularity of its sects like
the Kalamukhas and Kapalikas.
Suggested Further Reading
Footnotes
1 It is interesting that
the name "Hallah" used by Ajivikas to refer God, sounds so similar
to the name Allah of Islam. This together with the evidence of Indus
valley civilization in Oman makes one wonder whether some aspects
of the doctrine of Ajivikas, which is but an ancient form of Saivism,
might have come to the Indian subcontinent from the migrant communities
of Mesapotamia and probably eastern Africa.
2.As quoted in Saddarshana
Smuchchaya by Haribhadra
|
