by Jayaram V
An Ashrama is a hermitage or the resting place of a seer or a monk in the
middle
of a deep forest, where he would practice austerities, either alone or
in the company of fellow seers and his own disciples, to achieve
self-realization and also help others achieve the same. In ancient India,
ashramas dotted the forests all over and characterized the lives of people
who retired from active life, practicing severe penances and austerities
including self-mortification. They belonged to several ascetic traditions
within and outside the vedic fold and served not only as centers of spiritual
enlightenment but also as schools for young aspirants, who were willing to
let go of every thing and pursue their education and spiritual ideals with
single minded devotion. They also served as temporary resting places for the
ascetics who abandoned everything including a dwelling place and roamed in
the forests without a care or concern.
The ashrama dharma of vedic idealism envisages resting places in the
forest of human life for people to achieve their liberation from the cycle of
births, by adhering to a code of conduct and a map of life. Its principal aim
is to inculcate divine centered living and encourage people to uphold vedic
dharma, as they pursue the chief aims of human life, namely dharma
(religion), artha (wealth), kama (pleasures) and moksha (salvation), in the
course of their journey upon earth, without neglecting their obligatory
duties and without
sacrificing their spiritual ideals and human values.
The ashrama dharma, in its current form, recognizes four ashramas or
stages in the life of a human being. They are brahmacharya
(stage of studentship), grihasta (the stage of a householder), vanaprastha (stage of a forest dweller) and sanyasa (stage of renunciation).
From a theological point of view, the ashramas offer an incredible
opportunity to people to live in accordance with the highest ideals of human
life, irrespective of their age and the occupation and work for their
salvation. Manu believed that nothing in the world was ever done by a man
without desires and that the best way to fulfill them was by practicing
dharma and discharging one's obligatory duties. He declared that he who
persisted in discharging his prescribed duties would not only attain
immortality but also the fulfillment of all his desires even in his present
life (Manusmriti
2.5). It chief weakness is its adherence to caste based duties,
obsession with the superiority of the priestly class and the exclusion of a
large section of people who do not belong to the upper three castes because
of their birth.
The concept of four ashramas as successive stages in the life of an
individual was a later development in vedic society. The vedic dharma
originally upheld the concept of ekashramam or one ashrama for the rest of
one's life based on one's most dominant goal or aspirations. Of the four, the
life of a
householder was considered to be the most appropriate and auspicious. However as
time went by, the Dharmashastras (Hindu law books) found favor with the idea
of four ashramas as the successive stages in the lives of twice born castes
where by one could live life in accordance with one's goals and aspirations
and also preserve the institutions of family, caste and society. It was
probably an attempt to preserve vedic society by discouraging people from
abandoning their homes and family responsibilities at a very young age in
their lives and becoming ascetics.
Brahmacharya
Brahmacharya is the first stage in the life of a person on the path
of the Vedic dharma. It usually begins with his
initiation (Upanayana) ceremony, that marks his new birth as a twice born. Brahmacharya means activity concerning
Brahman. Technically speaking any one who is in pursuit of
Brahman or on the path of Brahma is a brahmacharin. However, in ancient India
it was used to denote a student who was receiving specialized knowledge and
vocational training from a teacher about his caste based occupation and
practiced celibacy and self-restraint during the course of his education, in
order to conserve his energies and remain focused on his immediate goal of
mastering his subjects. The students practiced celibacy and self-restraint as
a part of their obligatory learning, following the example of Brahma, the
creator god, who was associated with the qualities of celibacy and chastity.
Secondly, they lived in the company of a teacher who was regarded as Brahman in
human form. Since in either case they followed the ideals of Brahma or
Brahman, they were referred as brahmacharins, followers of Brahma or Brahman.
The life of a brahmacharin followed a pattern as prescribed in the law
books and represented the highest virtues one could cultivate at a very young
age. After the initiation
ceremony, the students stayed with their teachers for several years,
acquiring knowledge in various branches of education, under his close supervision.
During this period they were kept fully segregated from their families and
were not allowed to maintain contact or visit their homes. With the
initiation ceremony, the teacher assumed the role of a parent and filled
their absence. He was both God and a parent figure, whose word was final and
whose authority was unquestionable. The students were at his mercy. He would
give them knowledge, if he was impressed with their conduct and behavior and
grasping ability. Else, they would spend years, doing menial work in his
household, hardly receiving his attention. Manusmriti prescribed a maximum
period of 9 to 36 years for the stage of Brahmacharya or until a student
perfected his studies. During this long periond, the students were called
upon to lead very austere and disciplined lives, as a part of their learning
process, since what they received was considered to be a secret knowledge
which entailed a great responsibility on their part in using it for the
welfare of all. Following is a summary of the code of conduct prescribed by
the Hindu law books for a brahmacharin. With some exceptions here and
there, these rules were followed by students belonging to all the three upper
castes.
- A teacher is the image of Brahman. So a student should show complete reverence
and obedience to his teacher all the time. In the presence of
his teacher, he should never show any sign of disrespect or carelessness. He
should respect not only his teacher but his entire family irrespective of whether they are younger or older than him and whether they are male or
female. A student should usually select a learned brahmana as his teacher,
but in times of distress he may learn from a teacher who is not a brahmana.
- Everyday he should take bath and purify himself and offer libations of
water to gods, sages, ancestors and spirits and pour fuel into the sacred fire. He should study the holy scriptures
and recite the verses till he gains complete
mastery over them.
- A student is not allowed to cook his own food. It is his duty to go out
everyday and beg for food, only from the people of
merit, who are knowledgeable in the Vedas, who are morally righteous, who
are not related him through his mother or father and those who have not committed mortal sins.
- He should be very strict in practicing self-restraint. He should abstain from honey, meat, perfumes, garlands,
spices, women and foods that are acidic. He should never anoint his body,
apply collyrium to his eyes, use sandals or an umbrella. He should also
refrain from singing, dancing and playing musical instruments. He should stay away from the female members of the
teacher's household and keep as much distance as possible from them.
- He should cultivate virtues by controlling his sensual desires, anger and greed. He should
practice humility and restraint in speech, behaving like an idiot even if
he is wise. He
should avoid causing injury
to living creatures. and should not participate in vices such as gambling, idle disputes, backbiting,
lying, looking at and
touching women and hurting others.
- He should always sleep alone and never waste his manhood. Manu declare
that he who voluntarily wasted his manhood, broke his vow.
The stage of brahmacharya was spent almost entirely in the gurukulas. It purpose
was mastery of the Vedas and other scriptures and acquiring the knowledge of
Brahman, through cultivation of virtues, practice of restraint of the mind
and the body. The curriculum varied from caste to caste, but the emphasis
on the code of conduct and the relationship between the students and their
teachers were guided by the same principles. Practice of celibacy was central
to the life of a student, because it was the most difficult thing to do and
success in that area denoted complete mastery in self-control. Besides,
sublimation of sexual energy was considered essential to develop the
faculties of the mind in a student such a memory and comprehension and make
him worthy of higher learning. After successful completion of their
education, by mastering either all the Vedas or at least one of them, the
students were permitted by their teachers to leave them and
return to their homes. The student's return to home was usually marked with a
ceremony in which he presented his master with a gift
such as a field, gold, a cow, a horse, a parasol and shoes, a seat,
grain, (even) vegetables, or whatever that was pleasing to the teacher.
Grihastha or Garhasthya
The stage of grihasta begins when a student returns home after successful
completion of his education, without breaking rules, and takes a ritual bath.
The ritual bath marks the beginning of his life as a snataka, which marks the
period of transition from a student to a responsible young adult, ready to
assume full responsibilities as a householder. In ancient
times the snataka brahmanas, who just completed their education but were not
yet married or initiated into household duties, enjoyed good reputation. They
were respected for their knowledge and purity and enjoyed free passage from
one place to place and even between terrifies that belonged to different
rulers who were mutually hostile. Hence the spies and kings often went in the
guise of a snataka brahmana to gather sensitive information or escape from
close scrutiny. The snataka phase lasted
till marriage, after which one took up the responsibilities of a householder
and spent his energies in performing obligatory duties. The Hindu law books
regard the life of householder as the best of all the ashramas as it supports
those in the other three ashramas. It is also considered important to the continuation of
the vedic dharma, varnasharma dharma and caste based occupations. The following
duties are prescribed for a householder.
- He should perform various daily, monthly and annual sacrifices as
prescribed in the law books with utmost sincerity. The daily sacrifices
are five in number, brahmayajna, devayajna, pitruyajna,
bhutayajna and manushyayajna. Brahmayajna is sacrifice to Brahman. Also
known as ahuta, it consists of teaching and study of the Vedas, recitation
of the Vedas and contemplation and worship of Brahman. Devayajna is
sacrifice to gods. Also known as huta, it consists of offering burnt
oblations to gods. Pitruyajna is sacrifice to ancestors. Also known as
prasita, it consists of offering food and water called tarpana to the
departed souls. Bhutayajna, sacrifice to the animals. Also known as
prahuta, it consists of offering bali or sacrificial food to the animals
and insects. Manusyayajna, sacrifice to the human beings. Also known as
brahmya-huta, it hospitable treatment of the guests and making an offering
in the digestive fire of a brahmana.
- In addition to the five sacrifices, he should also make offerings of
food everyday to various gods and goddesses; ghosts and
goblins, dogs, and to poor people as prescribed in the
dharmashastras. He should give alms to ascetics and students, who cannot
cook food for themselves due to the obligations of their religious duties. He should
also make sacrificial offerings to fire at the beginning and end of the
day and in the night. He should eat whatever that remains after making all the offerings and honoring all the gods and
ancestors.
- He should make monthly offerings to his ancestors during which he should
also honor the invited guests by offering them food. In addition he should also
perform sacrifices at certain times during a year. The sacrifices are part
of one's religious obligation. Under no
circumstances they should be performed to cultivate friendships or enhance
one's social standing.
- In order to discharge his obligatory duties as a householder, he should
accumulate property by engaging himself in occupations that are prescribed
for his caste, with as little pain as possible to
others. He should live honestly and virtuously. He should stay away
from forbidden occupations, restrain his senses and detach himself from
sensual pleasures. He should not acquire wealth that would interfere with
the study of the Vedas. His dress, speech, and thoughts should be in conformity with his age, his occupation, his wealth, his sacred learning, and
his race.
- He should keep
his hair, nails, and beard clipped, wear white garments and keep himself pure. He should always be engaged in studying the Veda and
similar acts that are conducive to his
welfare. He should show respect towards the teacher who initiated him, or who
explained the Veda, his father and mother, or any other Guru, cows, brahmanas
and men performing austerities.
- He should avoid vices, atheism, questioning the Vedas, contempt of the gods,
hatred, want of modesty, pride, anger, and harshness. He should not act
violently towards others, threaten the virtuous or the righteous. He should not eat
the food that is explicitly forbidden in the law books or recite the Vedas
in forbidden places.
- During the performance of these duties, he should look after his wife
and keep her happy and she in turn should support him in the discharge of
his obligatory duties, remaining patient, self-controlled, and
chaste, and never doing anything that might displease him, whether he was alive or
dead.
The life of a householder places enormous responsibility on people, making
them work for their temporal and spiritual goals, without sacrificing their
higher aims and without succumbing to the temptations of materialistic life,
living in a society that regards personal possession as a mark of one's
success and achievement. It is like walking on a perilous path, where the
chances of faltering are higher and the consequences of karmic sin greater.
The Bhagavadgita therefore rightly advices people to perform their obligatory
duties with a sense of sacrifice and as an offering to God, accepting Him as
the real doer and without seeking the fruit of their actions.
Vanaprastha
Vanaprastha is the life as a forest dweller. It is also called Vaikhasana.
According to Manu, when a householder sees his wrinkled skin, white hair, and
grandsons, it is time for him to retire into a forest, to begin a life of
detachment and gradual withdrawal from the distractions and attractions of
the external world, either by entrusting his children to his wife, after
making provision for their sustenance, or accompanied by her, leaving behind
all his possessions. Technically this is the stage of retirement. What
distinguishes him from a sanyasin or a renouncer is his use of sacrificial
fire, which he carries along with him into the forest, and his performance of the
five daily sacrifices. During this phase, he is advised to practice
austerities and remain celibate. The life of a forest dweller is difficult
and challenging because it makes a great demand on the part of an individual,
who is accustomed to a certain way of life and comforts, to make necessary
adjustments in order to fit himself into a life of hardship and suffering.
The following rules are prescribed for a forest dweller. *
- He may live in a dwelling place of a hermitage and should continue to
make the five daily sacrifices as in the householder's stage, using various kinds of pure food fit for ascetics, or with herbs, roots, and fruit.
- He should wear a skin or a tattered garment; bathe in the evening or
in the morning; and always wear his hair in braids. The hair on his
body, his beard, and his nails should remain unclipped.
- He should give alms,
according to his ability, and honor those who come to his hermitage by offering
them water, roots, and fruit.
- He should be alert while privately reciting the Vedas,
patient in the face of hardships, friendly towards all, stable in his mind,
generous in giving
gifts without ever accepting them, and show compassion towards all living creatures.
- He should eat vegetables that grow on dry land or in water, flowers, roots,
and fruits produced by trees and oils extracted from
forest-fruits. He should avoid honey, flesh, and mushrooms growing on the ground
or elsewhere and certain fruit and vegetables. He should also avoid food
produced by cultivation or grown in a village, however hungry he may be.
He may eat anything that is cooked or ripened by time. After collecting
his food, he may eat it either in the day only or in the night only, but
not more than once. After eating food, he should promptly clean the vessel
in which he collected or prepared the food. He may store food sufficient
up to six months.
- He is also expected to train himself physically and mentally by various exercises and
making his austerities harsher and harsher day by day. He may either roll about on the ground, or stand during the day on
tiptoe or alternately stand and sit down. In summer he should expose himself to the heat, during the
rainy season live under the open sky, and in winter be dressed in wet clothes.
- In addition to the austerities, he must study the various sacred texts contained in the
Upanishads.
As the time passes by, a person who is leading the life of a forest
dweller should gradually turn himself into a complete ascetic so that he
begin his fourth and final phase as a sanyasin or renouncer.
Sanyasa
The last and final ashrama is known as sanyasa or bhaikshya, in which one
is advised to live like a mendicant or an ascetic, renouncing
everything, including the sacrificial fire and the five daily
sacrifices. It is difficult to say when exactly the
vanaprastha ends and the
sanyasa begins because a person is advised to transform himself gradually from a forest
dweller into a full fledged ascetic by increasing his his austerities
and making them harsher and harsher to the point where he becomes indifferent
to the vicissitudes of life. However what distinguishes the two phases is the use of
fire. A person who enters the phase of sanyasa is advised to perform a
special ceremony and withdraw the sacrificial fire into himself so that he
himself becomes an embodiment of fire that manifests itself as a radiant spiritual energy (tapas). During this phase
a sanyasi is advised to become completely detached from all worldly activities and possession and
become a wanderer, subsisting on alms, controlling himself and not hurting
any animal. He should beg only once in a day, in a place where no kitchen
smoke is seen, and subsist on meager food, just to keep himself alive. By eating little, and by standing and sitting in solitude,
he is advised to restrain his senses from the sense objects. By the restringing his senses, by the destruction of love and hatred,
and by abstaining from injuring the creatures, he should make himself fit for
immortality. He should contemplate upon death, transmigration of men, conditions
of after life, possibilities of future lives and so on. By deep
meditation, he has to recognize the subtle nature of the supreme Soul and its presence in all
beings, both the highest and the lowest.
He should conduct himself in such a way that no harm is done to other beings,
either intentionally or unintentionally. According to Manusmriti, "By not injuring any creatures, by detaching the senses
from objects of enjoyment, by the rites prescribed in the Veda, and by rigorously
practicing austerities," he has to overcome the dualities of life, such as
pain and pleasure, love and hatred, joy and sorrow and attain freedom from
the circle of births and deaths.
The Hindu law books do suggest increasing
the austerities and progressively reducing food intake during this phase, but
do not directly refer to the practice of self-mortification practiced by the
Jain ascetics. It is important to note that neither the life as a forest dweller nor the
life as a renouncer or ascetic are compulsory. A person could as well spend
these two phases in the house of his sons, performing otherwise the
obligatory duties prescribed for each of these phases.
Symbolism of the Ashrama Dharma
These four stages symbolically represent the divinity in the following manner:
Brahma
|
Brahmacharya
|
Vishnu
|
Householder
|
Siva
|
Vanaprastha
|
Iswara (Saguna Brahman)
|
Sanyasa
|
The four parts of the Vedas also can be compared to these four stages as shown below:
Samhitas
|
Brahmacharya
|
Brahmanas
|
Householder
|
Aranyakas
|
Vanaprastha
|
Upanishads (Vedanta )
|
Sanyasa
|
The Four stages of human life is also meant to deal with the imbalance of
the qualities of nature, namely sattva, rajas and tamas, which is responsible
for the delusion of the soul. In each stage of life, a particular quality of
nature becomes predominant thereby giving us an opportunity to deal with it
appropriately.
Develop sattva
|
Brahmacharya
|
Control rajas
|
Householder
|
Control tamas
|
Vanaprastha
|
Overcome the effect of qualities.
|
Sanyasa
|
The four stages of human life also correspond with the four aims (purushasrthas)
of human life. In other words what it means is that in each stage a
particular aim becomes the predominant goal of human life. The chief pursuit
of each phase of life is shown below.
Dharma
|
Brahmacharya
|
Artha
|
Householder
|
Kama
|
Vanaprastha
|
Moksha
|
Sanyasa
|
Ashrama Dharma in the Modern World
The following table describe how a person can observe these four stages in the present day world.
| Brahmacharya (As Student)
|
Study and acquire some degree, skill or expertise in some field that is in harmony with your inner disposition. |
| Grihasthsharama (As a householder) |
Marry, rear children, perform your responsibilities towards your parents, wife, children, relations, friends, organization, society and world in general. Treat all life as sacred and be philanthropic. |
| Vanaprastha (As a retiree) |
Evaluate and review what you have done so far. Have you completed your obligatory duties towards you family and relations? Are you in a position to slowdown, to withdraw and spend more time in mentally satisfying and spiritually uplifting
tasks? Remember Vanaprastha is not an escape but a kind of obligatory
retirement for a higher cause. |
| Sanyasa (The last phase) |
This is the phase of complete withdrawal. You have seen it all. You have enjoyed your life. It is time you sit and relax, you reminisce, and look at life as if in a film and draw into yourself your attention and your thoughts. It is time to wake up the God in you. |
Conclusion
It is also difficult to say how
strictly the model of life represented by the four ashramas was followed in
vedic society. We have literary evidence to suggest that in most cases the
first two phases of life were followed in letter and spirit, namely that of a
student and householder, while we are not certain of the remaining two. Mentioned
below are some additional points about the ashrama dharma whihc are not
discussed above.
Firstly, the ashrama dharma was primarily meant for the practice of men
only. Women had no independent role other than as partners of their husbands.
Thus a young girl, married at the age of six or seven to an old man of 30, was
supposed to partner with her husband in the performance of his obligatory
duties as a householder, although she was a child and the male children of
her age were in the gurukulas, going through the stage of brahmacharya. By
the time she was ready to take up family responsibilities as an adult,
her husband might already be old enough to qualify for the life of a forest
dweller.
Secondly, the ashrama dharma was meant for the three upper castes only.
Since their obligatory duties varied, except in respect of the study of the
Vedas, some of the rules and practices concerning each ashrama, especially
brahmacharya and grihastha varied from caste to caste. The lower castes and
those who remained outside the vedic fold were completely exempt from it.
Thus the ashrama meant very little for a large population of ancient India.
Thirdly, the
practice of ashrama dharma might not have been exclusive to Vedic tradition.
Some religious groups in ancient India such as the Jinas, the Ajivikas
and the followers of early schools of Saivism followed the tradition of
preparing the young aspirants in the gurukulas. They also encouraged their followers
to retire into forests and practice severe austerities, after fulfilling
their obligations as lay followers.
Finally, the ashrama dharma was an ideal vision based on certain vedic ideals and
philosophical notions. If we set aside the caste based prejudices and
elements of orthodoxy referred in the law books and
look afresh at the overall concept and the broader framework of life it
envisages from a spiritual, moral and social point of view, we find the four
stages of human life to be a perfect fit for any life style and in any age.
It can be as useful today as it was thousands of years ago. In western
societies, it is common for old people to work well into their 70s in order
to support their life styles. Governments are forced to spend huge amounts of
money on social security and in providing health care for the old and the
retired. In the eastern societies young people, caught up in the wheels of
economic development, are accused of falling moral standards and ignoring
their parents. Part of the problem stems from the fact that people want to
extend their lives as householders and do not want to withdraw from life or
reduce their necessities or control their desires. They cannot overcome their
attachment with the attractions of life or the comforts it seems to offer.
Since the resources are limited and the population is constantly increasing,
any system can only support so many people it is designed to. If people
refuse to retire and new people keep adding up, it would put severe strain
upon our resources and bring our systems to a grinding halt. The present
crisis in the US healthcare system is one good example. If people withdraw
from active life after a certain age and prepare themselves for their
afterlives by practicing austerities, reducing their wants and desires and
contemplating upon God and higher spiritual ideals, it would do a great deal
of good to society in the long run.
