|
Siva as we know him today was unknown to the Vedic people. They knew a form of
Siva who was different from the Siva who was
worshipped elsewhere in the Indian subcontinent. They worshipped a deity
who personified their fears and anxieties in an unfamiliar territory
surrounded by hostile tribes and an unfavorable nature.
We know Siva as part of the Trinity, as indweller of the world of
Kailash, as the yogi seated on the top of a snowy mountain somewhere in
the Himalayas watching the worlds above and below with his inner eye. We
know him to be the source of all knowledge, arts and crafts and the life
force that flows down from the heavens in the form of an eternal river
by coming into contact with which all our karmas are neutralized. We
know him as the father of Lord Ganesha and Kumara, the husband of both
Parvathi and Ganga, who rides the bull Nandi. We worship him both in his
image form and symbolically as a Sivalinga. We worship him ritually,
extolling his virtues and invoking him by his thousand names.
But the Vedic people had a different concept of Siva. They were not
very familiar with his peaceful or adorable forms. They perceived him
mostly as a god of anger, death and destruction and feared him most.
Uttering his very name on some occasions was considered inauspicious and
necessitated the performance of certain rituals. He was relatively
unknown in the early Vedic period, but as time went, by he superceded
most of the vedic gods and was recognized not only as Brahman or the
highest of all gods but also as part of the Hindu Trinity as the
destroyer along with Brahma the Creator god and Vishnu the preserver.
Prior to his integration into Vedic religion, Lord Siva was
worshipped mainly outside the Vedic society by people with whom they
were not very familiar. Even today we find Lord Siva being exceptionally
popular among many ancient tribes of India such as the Chenchus and the
Malavans who live in the remote areas of South India and consider Siva
not only as a hunter and a forest deity but also as the ancestor
of their tribes.
The integration of Siva into Vedic religion took place over a long
period of time probably as a result of the coming together of diverse
groups of people speaking different languages and practicing different
religious traditions. Crucial to this integration was probably the role
played by the kings who usually preferred to worship many deities and
followed a policy of religious tolerance. From the many tribes whom the Vedic people
either feared or hated, they picked up certain beliefs and practices
that appealed to them. They picked many practices and traditions from
Saivism also such as image worship, puja or the act of ritual worship of
God with flowers, incense, water, smoke, food and self, and some temple
rituals aimed to express one's love, awe, surrender, reverence and devotion to
God. The vedic people originally frowned upon the practice of the
worship of Siva lingas but subsequently integrated the practice into a
Vedic religion.
Siva In The Vedic Texts
Siva is mentioned in the Rigveda in three hymns as the fearful and
vengeful Rudra. He is described as the god of sickness, disease, death, destruction and
calamity. For the Vedic people his very name invoked fear . They
believed that the best way to avoid trouble was by seeking protection
from himself through appeasement because only Rudra would save them from
the wrath of Rudra. So they implored him not to harm anyone,
not to hurt pregnancies, not to vilify the dead and not to slay their
heroes in the war.
The Satarudriya invocation in the Yajurveda is perhaps the most
discussed and analyzed hymn. It is part of an invocation offered to the
god Agni to avert his wrath and pacify him after he transforms himself
into Rudra. The hymn depicts him both as terrifying and pleasing. The
prayer is offered to Rudra to bring health and prosperity to the people
as a divine physician and also to save them from his own wrath. He is
eulogized as lord of all beings and also called cheat and lord of the
thieves. He is described as a dwarf as well as as a giant. According to
some scholars, the Satarudriya hymn was probably part of several
invocations adapted from the prevailing Saiva literature into the Vedas
or probably part of a much longer hymn most of which was lost to us.
We find in the Atharvaveda more references to this God than in the
Rigveda, suggestive of his growing popularity. Rudra is
implored not to harm the cattle and the people. In the Atharvaveda as
well as the Yajurveda, Siva is addressed variously as Sarva,
Bhava, Nilakantha, Pasupathi, Nilagriva, Sitkantha and Sobhya. While
these names are presumed to be his epithets, in some hymns we find
the names Rudra, Sarva and Bhava, being used to refer different
divinities. Some hymns are also addressed to not one Rudra but several
Rudras who were storm deities associated with violent winds.
The Satapatha Brahmana mentions eight names of Rudra. In one place he
is mentioned as Rudra-Siva. In some cases he is also identified with
Agni. Here we come to know how Siva got his name as Rudra. It was
because he, as Manyu or wrath, clung to the Prajapathi, when the later
was disjointed, while all other divinities fled. He remained inside and
cried and from the tears that flowed out of him originated Rudras in
thousands. When the gods saw Rudra as a god of hunger and wrath, with
innumerable heads, a strong bow and arrow fitted to it, the gods were
afraid of him. The same Brahmana also alludes to his connection with animal
sacrifices and snakes.
In the Svetasvatara Upanishad Lord Siva was elevated to the status of
Brahman, by the sage who composed it, after he had a vision of Lord
Shiva as the Absolute and Supreme Brahman. He is described as the god
who wields the power of maya or delusion by which he controls the world.
He is also the indweller (antaratman) of all. Some basic concepts of
Saivism are clearly mentioned in the upanishad. Another important
upanishad, though belonging to a much later date than the Svetasvatara
Upanishad is the Atharvasira Upanishad which mentions the many names of
Siva and recommends the performances of certain rituals such as smearing
of the ashes to obtain the grace of Siva and achieve liberation from earthly life. Brhajjabala Upanishad and Bhasmajabala
Upanishad are other minor Saiva Upanishads dealing with some important
concepts and aspects of worship of Siva.
The integration of Yoga and Samkhya Schools of philosophy, the rise
of bhakti movement and the
growing popularity of ascetic traditions as a reaction against caste
prejudices and empty ritualism, coupled with the emergence of
Buddhism and Jainism as contemplative and reflective religions with
their emphasis on physical and mental practices to achieve self-control contributed to the growing popularity
of Siva and the emergence of Saivism as a important part of mainstream
Hinduism.
Siva in the Epics and the Puranas
Siva is mentioned in both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata. In the
Ramayana he is described as Sitikantha, Mahadeva, Rudra, Trayambaka,
Pasupathi and Shankara. We find in the epic references to the sacrifice of Daksha,
the marriage between Siva and Parvathi, the account of Siva saving the
worlds by drinking the poison that emerged during the churning of the oceans, the
slaying of the demon Andhaka and the destruction of the three cities (Tripura) with the help of Lord Vishnu. The demon king Ravana is described
as a great devotee of Lord Siva and the Ramayana itself as a narration by
Siva to Parvathi. Anjaneya, who was instrumental in finding Sita
and destroying many demons, is the son or an aspect of Siva only, born
under strange circumstances as a part of the plan associated with the
incarnation of Lord Vishnu as Sri Rama.
In the Mahabharata we find more detailed references to Lord Siva in
several chapters. In the Anusasana Parva, we are told how Lord Krishna was
initiated by Lord Siva into Siva bhakti or devotion to Siva. In the
Santhi Parvan the narration goes on to show that both Hari and Hara are the same. In the
same chapter we also find some epithets of Siva included in the list of the
thousand names of Vishnu. According to a narrative account in the epic, after
a brief but intense encounter with
Arjuna in a forest, Lord Siva gifted him a powerful weapon for use in
the epic war that followed.
In the Puranas we find very detailed treatment of many concepts of
Saivim in a language and imagery familiar to the masses. Some of the
Puranas deal exclusively with Siva and Saivism. They are categorized as
Siva Puranas in contrast to the Vishnu Puranas, Devi Puranas and Brahma
Puranas. The Siva Puranas describe Siva as the highest and Supreme
Being and other gods and divinities subordinate to him as a part of his vast creation.
Vayu Purana is considered to be one of the oldest of the Siva Puranas,
composed probably around 2nd Century BC. Other important Siva Puranas
are the Matsya Purana, the Brahmanda Purana, Skanda Purana, Linga Purana,
Vamana Purana and of course the Siva Purana. While the Vishnu Puranas
depict Brahma as originating from the navel of Vishnu, the Siva Puranas
inform us that Brahma became a creator and Vishnu became a preserver by
virtue of their devotion to Siva and meritorious deeds in their previous
lives.
Three Different World Views
Contrary to the popular belief, Saivism is much older than Brahmanism and
Jainism with its antecedents dating back to prehistoric times. The three shared some common beliefs such as reincarnation,
karma, maya or delusion and existence of heavenly worlds. The concepts of
karma, maya and reincarnation were originally alien to Vedic religion
and later integrated into it through Saivism.
The cult of the Father God and the Mother Goddess, which was the basis of
Saivism, was practiced by many prehistoric cultures with some
variations,
including the practice of worshipping stone images and fertility
symbols.
Seals found in the Indus valley suggest that the Indus people
probably worshipped a deity who shared some similarities with the earliest
forms of Lord Shiva, including his affinity with animals and his
propensity for meditation and yoga.
The Core Philosophy of Saivism
Saivism depicts an absolute God who is both pure consciousness and
soul consciousness and both actively passive and unconditionally
dynamic. It projects a vision in which there is a place for both the
individual will and divine will. However, it does not view fate as a
critical factor in human lives. Fate or destiny is man's own making
through his desires and binding actions. Karma is the relentless law
that makes the exercise of free will both a blessing and a curse.
According to its tenets, divine will is the inviolable law which usually
manifests as the grace of Siva. It has the power to neutralize
individual karmas and grant the souls freedom from birth and rebirth.
But this would happen only under exceptional circumstances usually
through the intervention of an enlightened master of guru who has become
one with consciousness of Siva.
In God's wondrous creation, individuals have the freedom to disobey
the divine will and suffer from the consequences. It does not matter to
Siva whether the beings obey or disobey His laws. Being an absolute entity,
He created universal laws to deal with the conflict between divine will
and free will. Because He is free and disinterested, with no particular
attachment to anything, He would not interfere with our lives minutely
or punish us instantly for our daily transgressions. He would also not
consider it necessary to incarnate Himself upon earth to set things
right because as the knower of all and lord of the universe he would not
let things go out of control without His prior knowledge. Yet we cannot
say that He is permissive or indifferent or unresponsive. He listens and
responds to our prayers. He willingly take upon Himself the task of
destroying the evil and the delusion that exists in the manifest
creation and our own consciousness.
Having manifested the worlds through His dynamic energy, He remains
in the back ground, as a knower of the past, the present and the future,
watching the events unfold themselves and letting things go by. For the
mortals, He is there, yet He is not there. He is with us and yet He is
not with us. He is the same and yet He is different. He hides Himself
behind a thick veil of ignorance, beyond the senses, the mind and the
objective world. He willfully lets Prakriti or Shakti do her work. He is
the master of the worlds and yet He obeys His own laws for the sake of
good order.
This conception of God centric cosmic drama in which the destiny of
individual beings stretched beyond time and space made Saivism
particularly popular among inquisitive minds in the ancient world. This
knowledge was not however available to the public freely. It was kept
behind a facade of weird practices and rituals to keep the weak and the
unprepared from entering into it and being overwhelmed by it. In the
same vein, with its emphasis on an Universal and supreme God as the
absolute reality and the cause of all creation, with Prakriti or Nature
as his dynamic energy, Saivism offered a world view that was contrary to
the atheistic and agnostic standpoints of Jainism and Buddhism and the
henotheistic position of Brahmanism, which relied upon rituals to
appease a multitude of atmospheric and elemental gods and obtain favors
from them. However the integration between Brahmanism and Saivism did
not happen instantly.
Saivism In The Vedic Times
During the pre vedic period some ancient cults of Saivism were in
vogue in the Indian subcontinent. We have references to believe
that Siva or his aspects were
worshipped by some ancient communities outside India
in far away places such as the Mediterranean, Africa, Central Asia and Europe. According to
some the name Siva is of Dravidian origin, derived from the word Chivan
or Sivan meaning red color. Sambhu, another name of Lord Siva, also said
to have been of Dravidian origin, derived from the word Chembu, or Chempu
or Sembu, meaning copper or red metal. According to some the phallic
symbol of Siva is of Austric origin and so is the name linga.
When we study the ancient Celtic gods like Norse Odin and the Celtic
Cernunnos we cannot miss some similarities between them and Siva. Some scholars also find parallels between the Tantric
practices of Saivism and the magical-religious practices of Shamanism of
the Mexican, American Indian, Inuit, and Australian
Aboriginal peoples. It is possible that the similarities might be due to
the fact that the religious beliefs of ancient cultures emerged mainly
from the fertility rites and the father god and mother god traditions of
prehistoric times.
According to some scholars, Shaktism, Samkhya, Yoga and Tantrism
were not new concepts that developed in the post Vedic India, but very
ancient traditions which were subsequently revived and integrated into the religious life of
the subcontinent. Some of these beliefs and practices of Saivism gradually found
their way into Brahmanism and Buddhism. Many magical rituals, fertility rites and
left-hand techniques and practices of Shaktism and Tantricism aimed
to cultivate detachment and gain control over the senses and the
mind, were incorporated with some variations into Brahmanism and
subsequently into Vajrayana Buddhism. The mentally unsettling and
provocative imagery of Tantricism found it way into Vajrayaana Buddhism.
During the Vedic period Siva was worshipped mostly by non Vedic
tribes, such as the Sibis who lived on the fringes of the Vedic society
and were hardly understood by vedic people. The
Mahabharata mentions the name of Pasupathas, one of the most
ancient and secretive sects of Saivism. Kapalikas, Kalamukhas were other
prominent sects of Saivism in ancient India. Followers of the Ajivika
sect were also probably worshippers of Lord Siva.
Saivism In The Recorded History
Megasthanese noted the worship of Siva in his book Indika. He thought
that the deity whom Indians worshipped was Dionysus, a Greek god who had
some affinity with
Siva. From Patanjali's Yoga Sutras, we understand that images of Siva
were in use probably for religious worship. In the Ashtadhyayi of Panini
we have references to Siva Bhagats, an ancient Saiva cult. Gautama, the author of Nyaya sutras, and
Kanada, the founder of the Vaisheshika school of philosophy which
proposed atomic theory, were, according to Haribhadra, followers of Lord
Siva.
A great devotee of Siva named Lakulisa lived some time during the
early or pre Christian era. He played an important role in the revival
of Saivism under the name of Pasupatha (the way of the animal). Not much
is known about the details of his life and works. He probably belonged
to the Kalamukha sect before he established the Pasupatha Saivism. He
opposed Jainism, Buddhism and the Ajivaka sect for their conflicting
stand points. Believed by his followers to be a manifestation of Siva
himself, Lakulisa revived the ancient practices of Hathayoga and
Tantrism and probably reintroduced the practice of human and animal
sacrifices. The revival of Saivism that began during his period was
subsequently continued by the Bharashivas and the Vakatakas.
The Satavahanas ruled a vast territory in the south for over 400
years in the post Mauryan era. They patronized vedic religion and
worshipped many gods including Siva and Skanda. They worshipped Siva
under such popular names as Siva, Mahadeva, Bhava and Bhutapala. They
also worshipped his vehicle Nandi and his son Skanda both as individual
deities and in association with Siva. Some of the foreign dynasities who
established their rule in the Indian subcontinent such as the Sakas, the
Pahlavas and the Kushanas often turned to Saivism. The Kushanas
worshipped many native and foreign deities including Siva and Skanda.
Kadhaphises II of the was a follower of Siva. His successor Kanishka was
a worshipper of Siva and Skanda. In the later part of his life, he
converted to Buddhism.
The Barashivas ruled parts of central and northern India from about
2nd Century AD. They were also known in history as the Nagas. The
Bharashiva reestablished Hindu traditions. They were great devotees of Lord
Siva, a tradition that was continued later by Vakatakas and the Guptas.
They played a very significant role in the revival of Hinduism at at
time when the Indian subcontinent was facing a series of foreign
invasions and Buddhism was on the raise. According to scholars, Hinduism
would not have been what it is today but for the patronage of Barashivas
in the north and the Satavahanas in the south during a critical period
when it was facing challenges from several directions. It is said
that the Huna king Mihirakula was also a follower of Siva.
Saivism
rose to prominence during the Gupta period. The Guptas were mainly
followers of Vishnu, but inscriptions belonging to their period show
that they also worshipped Lord Siva, Skanda and Parvathi. They erected
temples in their honor. Ganesha was popular deity, but probably not as
popular as Skanda. The inscriptions of the Gupta period bear many
epithets of Siva and Parvathi and suggests to the extent of their
popularity. The Gupta rule also witnessed the composition of many Hindu
sacred texts and new developments in Hindu art and architecture. Ujjain rose to prominence as an important Saivite center.
Many sacred texts of Saivism were composed during this period, which
included Agamas, Tantras and Puranas connected
with Lord Siva and the Mother Goddess. Famous Sanskrit scholars Kalidasa,
Vishnusharma and Bharavi, astronomers Aryabhata, Varahamihira and
Brahmagupta and the Buddhist philosopher Vasubandhu lived during this
period. They contributed to the development of astronomy, medicine and Sanskrit
literature. Kalidasa was a worshipper of Kali, the mother goddess. He
excelled in Sanskrit drama.
Saivism continued to flourish during the post Gupta period despite
the fact that many rulers like Harshavardhana continued to patronize
Buddhism. There were however some pockets of Hindu influence such as as
the Chandelas of Bundelkhand (9th century AD) who built 30 or so temples
of Siva and other deities at Khajuraho. During the same period else
where also Rajput rulers built many temples in honor of Siva and Shakti.
In the south the Chalukyas, the Pallavas and the Cholas built many temples in
honor of Siva. Worth mentioning are the cave temple of Siva at Badami,
the Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi and the Briahdiswara temple at Tanjore.
All the three dynasties were great patrons of Hinduism. The Pallva kings
witnessed the development of Saiva literature of the Tamils. It was also
the period during which the bhakti movement became popular in the south.
Sundaramurthy lived during this period and worked for the reformation of
many Saiva traditions. Kanchi became a prominent center of religious
education to which royal families sent their children. The Cholas were
also great devotees of Siva. They built many temples in his honor. They
were instrumental in the creation of greater Hindu civilization that
extended beyond the Indian subcontinent to Cambodia and adjoining
territories.
The Nayanars
The Nayanars of south lived between 6th and 8th Century AD. They were
poet saints who spread the awareness of Siva and Saivism expressing their
intense love and devotion by visiting various parts of the country and singing
devotional songs in public at holy places, temples and pilgrim centers.
They also countered the growing influence of Buddhism, Jainism and
Vaishnavisim through their discourses and compositions, rendered not in
Sanskrit but in Tamil the language of the common people. Saiva
literature records the names of 63 Nayanars, a few of whom were women.
They came from different backgrounds, from the highest to the lowest
strata of society, including the caste of untouchables. The most
prominent Nayanaras are considered to be Appar, Sambanthar and
Sundarar. In 11th century Nambi Andar Nambi composed Tirumurai, in which
he recorded the lives of all the 63 saints. It has immense historical and
spiritual value and considered as an important text of Saiva canon.
The Growth of the Sectarian Movements
Between 9th and 13th centuries, a new movment now known as Kashmiri
Saivism grew into prominence. It gained popularity in parts of northern India, especially Kashmir, because of
the teachings and compositions of eminent personalities like Vasugupta,
Somananda, Utpaladeva, Abhinavagupta and Kshemaraja. Kashmiri Saivism
follows Advaita or the philosophy of monism . It regards Siva as the
Supreme Lord and the only reality by realizing whom people are liberated
for ever from their state of bondage to identity, delusion and karma.
With its emphasis on master (guru) and disciple relationship, awakening
of kundalini energy and the teaching of Pratyabhigna or realization of
Siva as one's hidden self, Kashmiri Saivism caught the attention of many
including some Buddhists and Muslims during the medieval period.
Saiva Siddhanta was another school of Saivism that grew into
prominence in southern India. It was inspired by the compositions of the
Nayanars and others like Manikkavachakar, author of the famous
Tiruvachakam (10th century) and Mekyandar the composer of Sivajnanabodhanam
(13th century). Saiva Siddhanta school follows dvaita or dualism. It
regards Siva as the Supreme Lord of all but acknowledges a marked
distinction between the Supreme Self and the individual selves.
According to it, when individual selves are liberated from
the bonds of karma, egoism and delusion they do not merge with
Siva. They attain the same consciousness as Siva and continue to
remain as free souls for ever.
In the 13th century another school of Saivism, known as Virasaiva
movement rose to prominence in Karnataka. It was influenced by
the bhakti movement that swept across the country during the medieval
period. It was initiated by the legendary religious leader Basavanna, who
was not just a religious leader but a social reformer also. He opposed
the orthodox elements of society by castigating the prevailing
caste and gender prejudices and the excessive emphasis on rituals. Some
of the salient features of Virasaivism include the importance of guru, lingam, jangama
(wandering teacher), grace of God, holy ash, ruraksha beads and the
sacred mantra Om Namah Sivayah. For several centuries, followers of Vira Saivism
continued the ideas and ideals of Basavanna against
heavy odds. The movement still enjoys good following in the south.
Gorakshanatha school of Saivism is the most esoteric of all schools
of Saivism. It lays heavy emphasis on magical religious rituals of tantric
nature verging on the supernatural. They are kept mostly secret from the
general public and revealed only to the chosen few.Also
known as Natha yoga sect , it was said to have been founded
originally by Matsyendranatha and brought to prominence by Gorakshanath
who lived in 12the century. Followers of this sect believe he is still
alive physically because of his supernatural yogic powers and makes
himself visible occasionally to a chosen few. They also believe that it is possible to prolong
human life and even achieve
immortality in the physical body (kayasiddhi) through the practice hatha
yoga and self-control. They also practice magic and use certain
chemicals and substances to gain supernatural powers. These practices
are usually kept secret from the public. Gorakshanatha
Saivism is a variation of the ancient Kapalika and Kalamukha traditions.
Conceptually it follows qualified monism, accepting Siva as both the
transcendental and immanent reality. Followers of this sect indulge in
antisocial behavior purposefully to invite criticism and public
ridicule.
Saivism In The Contemporary World
Although Saivism is probably the most ancient of all schools of
Saivism and contributed greatly to the development of the body of Hindu
rituals which are now practiced in most of the Hindu temples, presently
it is not as popular as Vaishnavism. According to some estimates almost
two thirds of the Hindus are followers of Vaishnavism and
worshippers of Vishnu or his various incarnations and aspects. It is
true many Hindus worship several gods
and goddesses nonexclusively. But even while worshipping many deities,
they will have faith in one family god (kula devata) or favorite god (ishta
devata). For many it is Vishnu or his various incarnations.
Popularity wise, among the gods of Hindu trinity, Lord Vishnu enjoys
considerable following among the Hindus, probably because of his role as the preserver and rescuer and his
association with the goddess of wealth and his identification with several popular incarnations
who in many ways are perhaps more popular than he himself. The
popularity of Vishnu Puranas, the Bhagavadgita and the epics, the Ramayana
and the Mahabharata, also play a significant role in keeping his appeal
intact among the masses. The Ramayana and the Bhagavadgita are found in
almost every household and there is hardly any Hindu who is familiar
with these texts.
Lord Siva has immense appeal among the masses. But in comparison, he comes next, with a devoted following that is probably less
than one fourth of the devoted following of Lord Vishnu. One may find
solace in the fact that his position is better than that of
Brahma, who is not at all worshipped in the Hindu temples and who has
but a few temple existing in his honor. Lord Siva is still a popular
deity. He has mass following throughout the length and the breadth of
the Indian subcontinent. There are a large number of temples build in
his name. His children, Lord Ganesha and Kumaraswami and his associate
goddesses, have large following and are immensely popular among the
masses.
It is also true that many popular pilgrim centers of Hinduism such as
Benares and Amarnath and some most frequented temples of India such as
the jyotrilingas and the temples of Tanjore and Ujjain are associated
with Lord Siva only. Many ancient temples of India are also Saiva
temples only. However if people are asked to choose between the two,
people would perhaps choose Vishnu rather than Siva.
His description as a destroyer, his fierce forms, his identification with the quality of tamas,
his formal association with grave yards, death and destruction and his
role in the
practice of intense forms of tantric rituals and yogic practices and the
rigors of discipline expected of the followers of various schools of
Saivism discourage many people from entering into the various spiritual
paths of Saivism. Today people worship
Siva in his most benign forms. They visit his temples and offer him
prayers. They sing songs and bhajans extolling his virtues and
qualities. But
few are familiar with the various schools of Saivism or the philosophical truths, concepts and practices associated with them.
Suggested Further Reading
|
