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Thanissaro Bhikkhu
The definition
"And what is right concentration? There is the case where a
monk —
quite withdrawn from sensuality, withdrawn from unskillful
(mental) qualities — enters & remains in the first jhana:
rapture & pleasure born from withdrawal, accompanied by directed
thought & evaluation. With the stilling of directed thought
& evaluation, he enters & remains in the second jhana:
rapture & pleasure born of composure, unification of awareness
free from directed thought & evaluation — internal assurance.
With the fading of rapture he remains in equanimity, mindful, &
fully alert, and physically sensitive of pleasure. He enters &
remains in the third jhana, and of him the Noble Ones declare, 'Equanimous
& mindful, he has a pleasurable abiding.' With the abandoning of
pleasure & pain — as with the earlier disappearance of elation
& distress — he enters & remains in the fourth jhana:
purity of equanimity & mindfulness, neither pleasure nor pain.
This is called right concentration." — SN XLV.8
Purification depends on concentration
"I tell you, the ending of the mental fermentations depends on
the first jhana... the second jhana... the third... the fourth...
the dimension of the infinitude of space... the dimension of the
infinitude of consciousness... the dimension of nothingness. I tell
you, the ending of the mental fermentations depends on the dimension
of neither perception nor non-perception."
— AN IX.36
The four developments of concentration
"These are the four developments of concentration. Which
four? There is the development of concentration that, when developed
& pursued, leads to a pleasant abiding in the here & now.
There is the development of concentration that, when developed &
pursued, leads to the attainment of knowledge & vision. There is
the development of concentration that, when developed & pursued,
leads to mindfulness & alertness. There is the development of
concentration that, when developed & pursued, leads to the
ending of the effluents.
(1) "And what is the development of concentration that, when
developed & pursued, leads to a pleasant abiding in the here
& now? There is the case where a monk — quite withdrawn from
sensuality, withdrawn from unskillful qualities — enters &
remains in the first jhana: rapture & pleasure born from
withdrawal, accompanied by directed thought & evaluation. With
the stilling of directed thought & evaluation, he enters &
remains in the second jhana: rapture & pleasure born of
composure, unification of awareness free from directed thought &
evaluation — internal assurance. With the fading of rapture he
remains in equanimity, mindful & alert, and physically sensitive
of pleasure. He enters & remains in the third jhana, and of him
the Noble Ones declare, 'Equanimous & mindful, he has a
pleasurable abiding.' With the abandoning of pleasure & pain —
as with the earlier disappearance of elation & distress — he
enters & remains in the fourth jhana: purity of equanimity &
mindfulness, neither pleasure nor pain. This is the development of
concentration that... leads to a pleasant abiding in the here &
now.
(2) "And what is the development of concentration that...
leads to the attainment of knowledge & vision? There is the case
where a monk attends to the perception of light and is resolved on
the perception of daytime [at any hour of the day]. Day [for him] is
the same as night, night is the same as day. By means of an
awareness open & unhampered, he develops a brightened mind. This
is the development of concentration that, when developed &
pursued, leads to the attainment of knowledge & vision.
(3) "And what is the development of concentration that...
leads to mindfulness & alertness? There is the case where
feelings are known to the monk as they arise, known as they persist,
known as they subside. Perceptions are known to him as they arise,
known as they persist, known as they subside. Thoughts are known to
him as they arise, known as they persist, known as they subside.
This is the development of concentration that, when developed &
pursued, leads to mindfulness & alertness.
(4) "And what is the development of concentration that...
leads to the ending of the effluents? There is the case where a monk
remains focused on arising & falling away with reference to the
five clinging-aggregates: 'Such is form, such its origination, such
its passing away. Such is feeling... Such is perception... Such are
fabrications... Such is consciousness, such its origination, such
its disappearance.' This is the development of concentration that,
when developed & pursued, leads to the ending of the effluents.
"These are the four developments of concentration." — AN
IV.41
Noble right concentration
"Now what, monks, is noble right concentration with its
supports & requisite conditions? Any singleness of mind equipped
with these seven factors — right view, right resolve, right
speech, right action, right livelihood, right effort, & right
mindfulness — is called noble right concentration with its
supports & requisite conditions."— MN 117
What are you waiting for?
Get up!
Sit up!
What's your need for sleep?
And what sleep is there for the afflicted,
pierced by the arrow (craving),
oppressed?
Get up!
Sit up!
Train firmly for the sake of peace,
Don't let the king of death,
— seeing you heedless —
deceive you,
bring you under his sway.
— Sn
II.10
"Over there are the roots of trees; over there, empty
dwellings. Practice jhana,
monks. Don't be heedless. Don't later fall into regret. This is our
message to you." — SN
XXXV.145
"Right Concentration" From The Wings to Awakening
The following passages are excerpted from the "Right
Concentration" in The Wings to Awakening by Thanissaro Bhikkhu
1996.
The passages in this section deal with right
concentration in terms of three questions that deserve appropriate
attention:
- What is right concentration?
- How is it mastered?
- How can it be put to use?
To answer the first question: Passage §148 defines concentration
as singleness of mind, but not every instance of mental singleness
counts as right concentration. Passage §102 identifies right
concentration with the four levels of jhana — meditative absorption
— and §152 makes the point that jhana can be considered right
concentration only if it is devoid of unskillful qualities such as the
hindrances. Absorption in sensual passion, for instance, even though
it may be very single-minded, does not count as part of the path. Thus
the definition for the first level of jhana specifies that it counts
as a path factor only when the mind is secluded from sensuality and
unskillful mental qualities.
The singleness of jhana means not only that awareness is focused on
a single object, but also that the object is reduced to a single
quality that fills the entirety of one's awareness, at the same time
that one's awareness broadens to suffuse the entire object. This
mutual pervasion of awareness and object in a state of expansion is
what is meant by absorption. The similes used to illustrate the
various levels of jhana repeatedly make mention of
"expansion," "suffusing," "stretching,"
and "filling" [§150; also MN 121; MFU, pp. 82-85],
culminating in the fourth jhana where one's body is filled with a
bright sense of awareness. This sense of expansion and making-single
is also indicated in passages that teach specific meditation
techniques. The directions for keeping the breath in mind, for
instance, state that one should be sensitive to the entire body while
breathing in and out. This accounts for the term "mahaggata"
— enlarged or expanded — used to describe the mind in the state of
jhana.
There are two basic types of jhana, which the commentaries term
"form jhana" (rupa jhana) and "formless jhana" (arupa
jhana). Each type has several levels. In the case of form jhana,
different passages in the Canon list the levels in different ways. The
differences revolve around two different senses of the word
"form." In one sense, "form" denotes the body, and
form jhana is a state of mental absorption in the form of one's own
physical body, as sensed from within. Jhana focused on this type of
form comes in four levels, identical with the four levels mentioned in
the definition of the faculty of concentration [§72] and of right
concentration under the noble eightfold path [§102]. In another
sense, "form" can also denote the visible forms and light
that some meditators can see in the mind's eye in the course of their
meditation. This type of form jhana is analyzed into two patterns, one
with two levels [§164], the other with three [§163]. Both patterns
end with the perception of the "beautiful," which in terms
of its function is equivalent to the sense of radiance filling the
body on the fourth level of "body form" jhana.
For a person practicing form jhana in either sense of the term, the
equanimity experienced with the sense of beautiful radiance can then
act as the basis for the formless levels of jhana, which the Canon
terms the four "formlessnesses beyond form." These are
invariably defined as progressive absorption in the perceptions of
"infinite space," "infinite consciousness," and
"there is nothing," leading to a fourth state of neither
perception nor non-perception.
As for the second question, on how to master
right concentration: Passage §154
notes that the ability to attain the first level of jhana — however
one experiences the "form" acting as its focus — depends
on the abandoning of the hindrances, because the feeling of freedom
that comes with their abandoning provides the sense of joy and
pleasure that lets the mind settle skillfully in the present moment.
How to master this process is best shown by following the Buddha's
most detailed set of meditation instructions — the sixteen steps in
the practice of keeping the breath in mind [§151]
— and comparing them with the standard description of the four
stages of jhana [§§149-150]. Before we
analyze these maps of the practice, however, we must make a few
comments on how to use them skillfully.
To begin with, internal obstacles to the practice of jhana do not
end with the preliminary ground-clearing of the hindrances discussed
in the preceding section. More refined levels of unskillful mental
states can get in the way [§§160-61]. Lapses in mindfulness and
alertness can leave openings for the hindrances to return. Thus,
although the maps of the various stages of concentration proceed in a
smooth, seemingly inevitable progression, the actual experience of the
practice does not. For this reason, the Buddha gives specific
instructions on how to deal with these obstacles as they arise in the
course of the practice. Passage §159 lists five basic approaches, the
first two of which we have already covered in the preceding section.
The remaining three are: 1) One ignores the obstacles. This works on
the principle that paying attention to the distraction feeds the
distraction, just as paying attention to a crazy person — even if
one is simply trying to drive him away — encourages him to stay. 2)
One notices that the act of thinking a distracting thought actually
takes more energy than not thinking the thought, and one consciously
relaxes whatever tension or energy happens to accompany it. This
approach works best when one is sensitive enough to bodily sensations
to see the pattern of physical tension that appears in conjunction
with the thought, and can intentionally relax it. 3) The approach of
last resort is simply to exert force on the mind to drive out the
distracting thought. This is a temporary stopgap measure that works
only as long as mindfulness is firm and determination strong. It is
useful in cases where discernment is not yet sharp enough to make the
other approaches work, but once discernment is up to the task, the
other approaches are more effective in the long run.
Another point to keep in mind in understanding the maps of the
practice is that they list the steps of meditation, not in the order
in which they will be experienced, but in the order in which they can
be mastered. There are cases, for instance, where one will feel
rapture in the course of the practice (step 5 in the practice of
breath meditation) before one is able to breath in and out sensitive
to the entire body (step 3). In such cases, it is important not to
jump to any conclusions as to one's level of attainment, or to feel
that one has bypassed the need to master an earlier step. Instead —
when several different experiences arise together in a jumble, as they
often do — one should use the maps to tell which experience to focus
on first for the sake of developing one's meditation as a skill.
One qualification here is that it is not necessary to master all
the levels of concentration in order to gain Awakening. The
relationship of concentration to discernment is a controversial issue,
which we will cover in the following section, but here we may simply
note that many texts [§§173-74] point out that the experience of the
first jhana can be a sufficient basis for the discernment leading to
Awakening. The same holds true for the first four steps in breath
meditation, which constitute one of the alternative ways of developing
the body in and of itself as a frame of reference [§30]. In this
case, one's practice of breath meditation would jump from a mastery of
step 4 straight to step 13, skipping the intervening steps. In fact,
beginning with step 4, it is possible to jump directly to 13 from any
of the steps, and from there to progress all the way to Awakening.
The fact that the higher stages are unnecessary in some cases,
however, does not mean that they are superfluous. Many people, as they
develop the skill of their meditation, will find that their minds
naturally go to deeper levels of stillness with no liberating insight
arising. For them, the maps are valuable aids for a number of reasons.
To begin with, the maps can help indicate what does and does not count
as Awakening. When one arrives at a new, more refined level of
awareness in one's practice, it is easy to assume that one has
attained the goal. Comparing one's experience to the maps, however,
can show that the experience is simply a higher level of
concentration. Furthermore, awareness of the distinct levels can help
one review them after attaining them, so that in the course of trying
to master them, moving from one level to another, one can begin to
gain insight into the element of will and fabrication that goes into
them. This insight can then provide an understanding into the pattern
of cause and effect in the mind and, as passage §182
shows, can lead to a sense of dispassion and ultimately to Awakening.
However, the maps should not be used to plan one's practice in
advance. This is the message of §162,
which makes the point that one should not try to use one's knowledge
of the various levels of the practice to force one's way through them.
In other words, one should not try to concoct a particular state of
jhana based on ideas picked up from the maps. On reaching a particular
level, one should not be in a hurry to go to the next. Instead, one
should familiarize oneself with that level of mind, perfecting one's
mastery; eventually that state of concentration will ripen naturally
into the next level. To continue the image of the passage, one will
find that there is no need to jump to another pasture to taste
different grass and water, for the new grass and water will develop
right in one's own pasture.
Finally, although the maps to the various stages of concentration
seem exhaustive and complete, bear in mind that they list only the
stages of right concentration, and not the varieties of wrong.
In addition to the types of wrong
concentration mentioned in §152, there
are states of mind that may be very quiet but lack the mindfulness
that would make them right. One of these stages is a blurred state —
essentially a concentration of delusion — half-way between waking
and sleep, in which one's object becomes hazy and ill-defined. On
leaving it, one is hard put to say where the mind was focused, or
whether it was awake or asleep. Another type of wrong concentration is
one that a modern practice tradition calls a state of non-perception (asaņņi).
In this state, which is essentially a concentration of subtle aversion
— the result of a strongly focused determination not to stay with
any one object — everything seems to cease: the mind blanks out,
with no perception of sights or sounds, or of one's own body or
thoughts. There is just barely enough mindfulness to know that one
hasn't fainted or fallen asleep. One can stay there for long periods
of time, and yet the experience will seem momentary. One can even
determine beforehand when one will leave the state; but on emerging
from it, one will feel somewhat dazed or drugged, a reaction caused by
the intense aversive force of the concentration that induced the state
to begin with. There are other forms of wrong concentration, but a
general test is that right concentration is a mindful, fully alert
state. Any state of stillness without clear mindfulness and alertness
is wrong.
With these points in mind we can now turn to the maps to see their
answer to the question of how breath meditation leads to the mastery
of jhana. As noted above, the practice of keeping the breath in mind
is the meditation method that the Canon teaches in most detail. There
are two possible reasons for this, one historical and the other more
theoretical. From the historical point of view, the breath was the
focal point that the Buddha himself used on the night of his own
Awakening. From the theoretical perspective, a state of concentration
focused on the breath is the meeting place of all the elements of the
factor of "fabrication" (sankhara) in the formula for
dependent co-arising [§§218, 223]. This factor, as experienced in
the present, consists of bodily fabrication (the breath itself),
verbal fabrication (the factors of directed thought and evaluation
applied to the breath in the first jhana), and mental fabrication
(feeling and perception, in this case the feelings of pleasure and
equanimity experienced in the four jhanas, plus the mental label of
"breath" or "form" that act as the basis for the
state of jhana). Because transcendent discernment must deal directly
with these three types of fabrication if it is to eliminate the
ignorance that underlies them, the practice of jhana based on the
breath is an ideal point to focus on all three at once.
The first two steps of breath meditation [§151] involve simple
tasks of directed thought and evaluation: directing one's thoughts and
attention to the breath in and of itself, in the present, at the same
time evaluating it as one begins to discern variations in the length
of the breath. Some modern teachers maintain that the factor of
evaluation here also includes taking one's observations of short and
long breathing as a basis for adjusting the rhythm of the breath to
make it as comfortable as possible. Because the first level of jhana
must be based on a sense of pleasure [§238], this advice is very
practical.
The remaining steps are willed or determined: One "trains
oneself," first by manipulating one's sense of conscious
awareness, making it sensitive to the body as a whole. Then one can
begin manipulating the bodily sensations of which one is aware,
reducing them to a single sensation of calm by letting "bodily
fabrication" — the breath — grow calm so as to create an
easeful sense of rapture and pleasure. A comparison between the stages
of breath meditation and the graphic analogies for jhana [§150]
indicates that the fifth and sixth steps — being sensitive to
rapture and pleasure — involve making these feelings
"single" as well, by letting them suffuse the entire body,
just as the bathman kneads the moisture throughout his ball of bath
powder. With bodily fabrications stilled, mental fabrications —
feelings and perceptions — become clearly apparent as they occur,
just as when a radio is precisely tuned to a certain frequency, static
is eliminated and the message sent by the radio station broadcasting
at that frequency becomes clear. These mental fabrications, too, are
calmed, a step symbolized in the analogies for jhana by the still
waters in the simile for the third level, in contrast to the spring
waters welling up in the second. What remains is simply a sense of the
mind itself, corresponding to the level of fourth jhana, in which the
body is filled from head to toe with a single sense of bright, radiant
awareness. This completes the first level of frames-of-reference
practice [II/B].
Once this stage is reached, steps 10-12 indicate that one can now
turn one's attention to consolidating one's mastery of concentration.
One does this by reviewing the various levels of jhana, focusing not
so much on the breath as on the mind as it relates to the breath. This
allows a perception of the different ways in which the mind can be
satisfied and steadied, and the different factors from which it can be
released by taking it through the different levels of jhana — for
example, releasing it from rapture by taking it from the second level
to the third, and so forth [§175]. One
comes to see that, although the breath feels different on the
different levels of jhana, the cause is not so much the breath as it
is the way the mind relates to the breath, shedding the various mental
activities surrounding its single preoccupation. As one ascends
through the various levels, directed thought and evaluation are
stilled, rapture fades, and pleasure is abandoned. Another way of
consolidating one's skills in the course of these steps is to examine
the subtle defilements that interfere with full mastery of
concentration. The fact that one's focus is now on the mind makes it
possible to see these defilements clearly, and then to steady the mind
even further by releasing it from them. Passage §161,
although aimed specifically at the problems faced by those who have
visions in their meditation, gives a useful checklist of subtle mental
defilements that can hamper the concentration of any meditator. The
image of grasping the quail neither too loosely nor too tight has
become a standard one in Buddhist meditation manuals.
The mastery of concentration developed in steps 9-12 provides an
excellent chance to develop discernment into the pattern of cause and
effect in the process of concentrating the mind, in that one must
master the causal factors before one can gain the desired results in
terms of satisfaction, steadiness, and release. Here we see at work
the basic pattern of skillfulness mentioned in several earlier
sections: that discernment is sharpened and strengthened by employing
it in developing the skills of concentration. This would correspond to
the second level of
frames-of-reference meditation — focusing on the phenomenon of
origination and passing away — mentioned in II/B.
Another development that can happen during these steps — although
this takes one outside of the practice of breath meditation per se —
is the discovery of how the equanimity developed in the fourth jhana
can be applied to other refined objects of the mind. These are the
four formless jhanas: the dimension of the infinitude of space, the
dimension of the infinitude of consciousness, the dimension of
nothingness, and the dimension of neither perception nor
non-perception. These states may sound impossibly abstract, but in
actual practice they grow directly from the way the mind relates to
the still sense of the body in the fourth jhana. The first stage comes
when the mind consciously ignores its perception (mental label) of the
form of the body, attending instead to the remaining sense of space
that surrounds and pervades that form; the second stage comes when the
mind sheds its perception of "space," leaving a limitless
sense of awareness; the third, when it lets go of its perception or
mental label of "awareness," leaving a perception of
inactivity; and the fourth, when it sheds the perception of that lack
of activity. What is left is a state where perception is so refined
that it can hardly be called perception at all, even though it is
still there. As one masters these steps, one sees that whereas the
first four levels of jhana differ in the type of activity the mind
focuses on its one object, the four formless jhanas differ in their
objects, as one level of mental labeling falls away to be replaced by
a more subtle one.
Passages §162 and §164
list one more meditative attainment beyond the dimension of neither
perception nor non-perception — the cessation of feeling and
perception — but this is qualitatively different from the others, in
that a meditator cannot attain it without at the same time awakening
to the level of at least nonreturning.
The reason behind this is related, once more, to the factor of
"fabrication" (sankhara) in dependent co-arising [§218].
In the course of mastering the levels of jhana, verbal fabrication
grows still as one enters the second jhana; bodily fabrication, as one
enters the fourth; and mental fabrication, as one enters this last
stage. For all three types of fabrication to stop, however, ignorance
— the condition for fabrication — must stop as well, and this can
happen only with the insight that leads to Awakening.
We have come to the end of the list of the stages of mastery in
meditative attainment, but four steps in breath meditation remain
unexplained. This is because, aside from the ninth level of
attainment, the stages of mastery can all be attained without
developing the discernment that constitutes Awakening, while the last
four steps in breath meditation deal specifically with giving rise to
that discernment. This brings us to the third question that was
broached at the beginning of this introduction: how right
concentration can be put to use.
Passage §149 lists four possible uses
for concentration:
- a pleasant abiding in the here and now,
- the attainment of knowledge and vision,
- mindfulness and alertness, and
- the ending of the effluents.
The first use is the simple enjoyment of the experience of jhana;
the second relates to the first five supranormal powers [II/D]. The
third relates to the development of the frames of reference [II/B];
and the fourth, to the discernment that constitutes Awakening. We have
already discussed the second and third uses of concentration in the
passages just cited in brackets. This leaves us with the first and
fourth.
The Canon [MN 138; MFU, pp. 114-15] notes that meditators can
become "chained and fettered" to the attractions of the
pleasure to be found in jhana. As a result, many meditators are afraid
to let their minds settle into blissfully still states, for fear of
becoming stuck. The Canon, however, never once states that
stream-entry can be attained without at least some experience in jhana;
and it states explicitly [AN III.88; MFU, p. 103] that the attainment
of nonreturning requires a mastery of concentration. MN 36 relates
that the turning point in the Buddha's own practice — when he
abandoned the path of self-affliction and turned to the middle way —
hinged on his realization that there is nothing blameworthy in the
pleasure to be found in jhana. Thus, there is nothing to fear.
This pleasure plays an important function in the practice. To begin
with, it enables the mind to stay comfortably in the present moment,
helping it attain the stability it needs for gaining insight. This can
be compared to a scientific experiment, in which the measuring
equipment needs to be absolutely steady in order to give reliable
readings. Secondly, because a great deal of sensitivity is required to
"tune" the mind to the refined pleasure of jhana, the
practice serves to increase one's sensitivity, making one more acutely
aware of even the most refined levels of stress as well. Thirdly,
because the pleasure and equanimity of jhana are more exquisite than
sensory pleasures, and because they exist independently of the five
senses, they can enable the mind to become less involved in sensory
pleasures and less inclined to search for emotional satisfaction from
them. In this sense, the skillful pleasures of jhana can act as a
fulcrum for prying loose one's attachments to the less skillful
pleasures of sensuality. The fact that fully mature mastery of jhana
brings about the attainment of nonreturning, the preliminary level of
Awakening where sensual passion is abandoned, shows the necessary role
that jhana plays in letting go of this particular defilement. Finally,
the pleasure of jhana provides a place of rest and rehabilitation
along the path when the mind's powers of discernment become dulled or
it must be coaxed into the proper mood to accept some of the harsher
lessons that it needs to learn in order to abandon its cravings. Just
as a person who is well-fed and rested is more open to receiving
criticism than when he is tired and hungry, the mind is often more
willing to admit its own foolishness and lack of skill when it is
nourished by the pleasure of jhana than when it is not.
Thus, although the pleasure of jhana can become an obstacle if
treated as an end in itself, there are phases of the practice where
the pursuit of this form of pleasure is a useful strategy toward the
fourth use of concentration: the ending of the mental effluents. This
fourth use is the topic of the next section, but here we can simply
note that it is related to the fifth factor of noble right
concentration mentioned in §150. As the simile illustrating it
suggests — with the standing person reflecting on the person sitting
down — this factor is a pulling back or a lifting of the mind above
the object of its absorption, without at the same time disturbing the
absorption. This factor corresponds to steps 9 through 12 in the guide
to breath meditation, in that one is able to focus on the way the mind
relates to its object at the same time that the mind is actually in a
state of concentration. Passage §172 shows that this factor can be
applied to any level of jhana except for the states of neither
perception nor non-perception and the cessation of perception and
feeling. As for those two states, one can reflect on their component
factors only after leaving them. With the other states, one stays with
the object, but one's prime focus is on the mind. One sees the various
mental events that go into maintaining that state of concentration,
and as one contemplates these events, one becomes struck by how
inconstant they are, how fabricated and willed. This provides insight
into how the present aspect of kamma — one's present intentions —
shape one's present experience. It also gives insight into the general
pattern of cause and effect in the mind.
Focusing on the inconstancy and unreliability of the factors in
this pattern gives rise to the realization that they are also
stressful and not-self: neither "me" nor "mine,"
but simply instances of the first noble truth [III/H/i]. When this
realization goes straight to the heart, there comes a sense of
dispassion for any craving directed at them (the second noble truth)
and an experience of their fading and cessation (the third). Finally,
one relinquishes attachment not only to these events, but also to the
discernment that sees through to their true nature (the fourth). This
completes steps 13 through 16 in the guide to breath meditation, at
the same time bringing the seven factors for Awakening to completion
in a state "dependent on seclusion... dispassion... cessation,
resulting in letting go [§93]," where "letting go"
would appear to be equivalent to the "relinquishment" in
step 16. When one can simply experience the act of relinquishment,
without feeling that one is "doing" the relinquishing, one
passes through the third stage of frames-of-reference meditation to
the state of non-fashioning [§§179, 183], which forms the threshold
to release.
Even after attaining release, the arahant continues to practice
meditation, although now that the effluents are ended, the
concentration is not needed to put them to an end. MN 107 mentions
that arahants practice concentration both for the sake of a pleasant
abiding in the here and now, and for mindfulness and alertness. A
number of passages in the Canon mention the Buddha and his arahant
disciples exercising their supranormal powers, which shows that they
were practicing concentration for the sake of attaining knowledge and
vision as well, to use in instructing those around them. The
description of the Buddha's passing away tells that he entered total
nibbana after exercising his mastery in the full range of jhanic
attainments. Thus the practice of concentration is useful all the way
to the point where one gains total release from the round of death and
rebirth.
Passages from
the Pali Canon ![[go to top]](../images/scrollup.gif)
§ 148. Visakha:
Now what is concentration, what qualities are its themes, what
qualities are its requisites, and what is its development?
Sister Dhammadinna:
Singleness of mind is concentration; the four frames of reference are
its themes; the four right exertions are its requisites; and any
cultivation, development, & pursuit of these qualities is its
development. — MN 44
§ 149. These are
the four developments of concentration. Which four? There is the
development of concentration that, when developed & pursued, leads
to a pleasant abiding in the here & now. There is the development
of concentration that... leads to the attainment of knowledge &
vision. There is the development of concentration that... leads to
mindfulness & alertness. There is the development of concentration
that, when developed & pursued, leads to the ending of the
effluents.
And what is the development of concentration that, when developed
& pursued, leads to a pleasant abiding in the here & now?
There is the case where a monk — quite withdrawn from sensuality,
withdrawn from unskillful qualities — enters & remains in the
first jhana: rapture & pleasure born from withdrawal, accompanied
by directed thought & evaluation. With the stilling of directed
thought & evaluation, he enters & remains in the second jhana:
rapture & pleasure born of composure, unification of awareness
free from directed thought & evaluation — internal assurance.
With the fading of rapture he remains in equanimity, mindful &
alert, and physically sensitive to pleasure. He enters & remains
in the third jhana, of which the Noble Ones declare, 'Equanimous &
mindful, he has a pleasurable abiding.' With the abandoning of
pleasure & pain — as with the earlier disappearance of elation
& distress — he enters & remains in the fourth jhana: purity
of equanimity & mindfulness, neither pleasure nor pain. This is
the development of concentration that... leads to a pleasant abiding
in the here & now.
And what is the development of concentration that... leads to the
attainment of knowledge & vision? There is the case where a monk
attends to the perception of light and is resolved on the perception
of daytime [at any hour of the day]. Day [for him] is the same as
night, night is the same as day. By means of an awareness open &
unhampered, he develops a brightened mind. This is the development of
concentration that... leads to the attainment of knowledge &
vision. [§§64;]
And what is the development of concentration that... leads to
mindfulness & alertness? There is the case where feelings are
known to the monk as they arise, known as they persist, known as they
subside. Perceptions are known to him as they arise, known as they
persist, known as they subside. Thoughts are known to him as they
arise, known as they persist, known as they subside. This is the
development of concentration that... leads to mindfulness &
alertness. [§30]
And what is the development of concentration that... leads to the
ending of the effluents? There is the case where a monk remains
focused on arising & falling away with reference to the five
clinging-aggregates: 'Such is form, such its origination, such its
disappearance. Such is feeling... Such is perception... Such are
fabrications... Such is consciousness, such its origination, such its
disappearance.' This is the development of concentration that... leads
to the ending of the effluents. [§173]
These are the four developments of concentration. — AN IV.41
§ 150. Noble Right
Concentration. Now what, monks, is five-factored noble right
concentration? There is the case where a monk — quite withdrawn from
sensuality, withdrawn from unskillful qualities — enters &
remains in the first jhana: rapture & pleasure born from
withdrawal, accompanied by directed thought & evaluation. He
permeates & pervades, suffuses & fills this very body with the
rapture & pleasure born from withdrawal. There is nothing of his
entire body unpervaded by rapture & pleasure born from withdrawal.
Just as if a skilled bathman
or bathman's apprentice would pour bath powder into a brass basin and
knead it together, sprinkling it again & again with water, so that
his ball of bath powder — saturated, moisture-laden, permeated
within & without — would nevertheless not drip; even so, the
monk permeates... this very body with the rapture & pleasure born
of withdrawal. There is nothing of his entire body unpervaded by
rapture & pleasure born from withdrawal. This is the first
development of the five-factored noble right concentration.
Furthermore, with the stilling of directed thought &
evaluation, he enters & remains in the second jhana: rapture &
pleasure born of composure, unification of awareness free from
directed thought & evaluation — internal assurance. He permeates
& pervades, suffuses & fills this very body with the rapture
& pleasure born of composure. There is nothing of his entire body
unpervaded by rapture & pleasure born of composure.
Just like a lake with
spring-water welling up from within, having no inflow from east, west,
north, or south, and with the skies periodically supplying abundant
showers, so that the cool fount of water welling up from within the
lake would permeate & pervade, suffuse & fill it with cool
waters, there being no part of the lake unpervaded by the cool waters;
even so, the monk permeates... this very body with the rapture &
pleasure born of composure. There is nothing of his entire body
unpervaded by rapture & pleasure born of composure. This is the
second development of the five-factored noble right concentration.
And furthermore, with the fading of rapture, he remains in
equanimity, mindful & alert, and physically sensitive to pleasure.
He enters & remains in the third jhana, of which the Noble Ones
declare, 'Equanimous & mindful, he has a pleasurable abiding.' He
permeates & pervades, suffuses & fills this very body with the
pleasure divested of rapture, so that there is nothing of his entire
body unpervaded with pleasure divested of rapture.
Just as in a blue-, white-, or
red-lotus pond, there may be some of the blue, white, or red
lotuses which, born & growing in the water, stay immersed in the
water and flourish without standing up out of the water, so that they
are permeated & pervaded, suffused & filled with cool water
from their roots to their tips, and nothing of those blue, white, or
red lotuses would be unpervaded with cool water; even so, the monk
permeates... this very body with the pleasure divested of rapture.
There is nothing of his entire body unpervaded with pleasure divested
of rapture. This is the third development of the five-factored noble
right concentration.
And furthermore, with the abandoning of pleasure & stress —
as with the earlier disappearance of elation & distress — he
enters & remains in the fourth jhana: purity of equanimity &
mindfulness, neither-pleasure-nor-pain. He sits, permeating the body
with a pure, bright awareness, so that there is nothing of his entire
body unpervaded by pure, bright awareness.
Just as if a man were
sitting wrapped from head to foot with a white cloth so that there
would be no part of his body to which the white cloth did not extend;
even so, the monk sits, permeating his body with a pure, bright
awareness. There is nothing of his entire body unpervaded by pure,
bright awareness. This is the fourth development of the five-factored
noble right concentration.
And furthermore, the monk has his theme of reflection well in hand,
well attended to, well pondered, well tuned (well-penetrated) by means
of discernment.
Just as if one person were to reflect on another, or a standing
person were to reflect on a sitting person, or a sitting person were
to reflect on a person lying down; even so, monks, the monk has his
theme of reflection well in hand, well attended to, well pondered,
well tuned by means of discernment. This is the fifth development of
the five-factored noble right concentration.
When a monk has developed & pursued the five-factored noble
right concentration in this way, then whichever of the six higher
knowledges he turns his mind to know & realize, he can witness
them for himself whenever there is an opening. [§64]
Suppose that there were a water jar,
set on a stand, brimful of water so that a crow could drink from it.
If a strong man were to tip it in any way at all, would water spill
out?
Yes, lord.
In the same way, when a monk has developed & pursued the
five-factored noble right concentration in this way, then whichever of
the six higher knowledges he turns his mind to know & realize, he
can witness them for himself whenever there is an opening.
Suppose there were a rectangular water tank
— set on level ground, bounded by dikes — brimful of water so that
a crow could drink from it. If a strong man were to loosen the dikes
anywhere at all, would water spill out?
Yes, lord...
Suppose there were a chariot
on level ground at four crossroads, harnessed to thoroughbreds,
waiting with whips lying ready, so that a skilled driver, a trainer of
tamable horses, might mount and — taking the reins with his left
hand and the whip with his right — drive out & back, to whatever
place and by whichever road he liked; in the same way, when a monk has
developed & pursued the five-factored noble right concentration in
this way, then whichever of the six higher knowledges he turns his
mind to know & realize, he can witness them for himself whenever
there is an opening. — AN
V.28
§ 151. Breath
Meditation. Now how is mindfulness of in-&-out breathing
developed & pursued so that it bears great fruit & great
benefits?
There is the case where a monk, having gone to the wilderness, to
the shade of a tree, or to an empty building, sits down folding his
legs crosswise, holding his body erect, and setting mindfulness to the
fore. Always mindful, he breathes in; mindful he breathes out.
[1] Breathing in long, he discerns that he is breathing in long; or
breathing out long, he discerns that he is breathing out long. [2] Or
breathing in short, he discerns that he is breathing in short; or
breathing out short, he discerns that he is breathing out short. [3]
He trains himself to breathe in sensitive to the entire body, and to
breathe out sensitive to the entire body. [4] He trains himself to
breathe in calming bodily fabrication, and to breathe out calming
bodily fabrication.
[5] He trains himself to breathe in sensitive to rapture, and to
breathe out sensitive to rapture. [6] He trains himself to breathe in
sensitive to pleasure, and to breathe out sensitive to pleasure. [7]
He trains himself to breathe in sensitive to mental fabrications, and
to breathe out sensitive to mental fabrications. [8] He trains himself
to breathe in calming mental fabrication, and to breathe out calming
mental fabrication.
[9] He trains himself to breathe in sensitive to the mind, and to
breathe out sensitive to the mind. [10] He trains himself to breathe
in satisfying the mind, and to breathe out satisfying the mind. [11]
He trains himself to breathe in steadying the mind, and to breathe out
steadying the mind. [12] He trains himself to breathe in releasing the
mind, and to breathe out releasing the mind.
[13] He trains himself to breathe in focusing on inconstancy, and
to breathe out focusing on inconstancy. [14] He trains himself to
breathe in focusing on dispassion (literally, fading), and to
breathe out focusing on dispassion. [15] He trains himself to breathe
in focusing on cessation, and to breathe out focusing on cessation.
[16] He trains himself to breathe in focusing on relinquishment, and
to breathe out focusing on relinquishment.
This is how mindfulness of in-&-out breathing is developed
& pursued so as to bear great fruit & great benefits.— SN LIV.1
§ 152. Vassakara:
Once, Ven. Ananda, Ven. Gotama was living at Vesali in the Hall with
the peaked roof in the Great Forest. I went to where he was staying in
the Great Forest... and there he spoke in a variety of ways on jhana.
Ven. Gotama was both endowed with jhana and made jhana his habit. In
fact, he praised all sorts of jhana.
Ananda: It was not the case that the Blessed One praised all sorts
of jhana, nor did he criticize all sorts of jhana. And what
sort of jhana did he not praise? There is the case where a certain
person dwells with his awareness overcome by sensual passion, seized
with sensual passion. He does not discern the escape, as it actually
is present, from sensual passion once it has arisen. Making that
sensual passion the focal point, he absorbs himself with it, besorbs,
resorbs, & supersorbs himself with it.
He dwells with his awareness overcome by ill will... sloth &
drowsiness... restlessness & anxiety... uncertainty, seized with
uncertainty. He does not discern the escape, as it actually is
present, from uncertainty once it has arisen. Making that uncertainty
the focal point, he absorbs himself with it, besorbs, resorbs, &
supersorbs himself with it. This is the sort of jhana that the Blessed
One did not praise.
And what sort of jhana did he praise? There is the case where a
monk — quite withdrawn from sensuality, withdrawn from unskillful
qualities — enters & remains in the first jhana... the second
jhana... the third jhana... the fourth jhana: purity of equanimity
& mindfulness, neither pleasure nor pain. This is the sort of
jhana that the Blessed One praised.
Vassakara: It would seem, Ven. Ananda, that the Ven. Gotama
criticized the jhana that deserves criticism, and praised that which
deserves praise. — MN
108
§ 153. A monk
endowed with these five qualities is incapable of entering &
remaining in right concentration. Which five? He cannot withstand [the
impact of] sights, he cannot withstand sounds... aromas... tastes...
tactile sensations. A monk endowed with these five qualities is not
capable of entering & remaining in right concentration.
A monk endowed with these five qualities is capable of entering
& remaining in right concentration. Which five? He can withstand
[the impact of] sights... sounds... aromas... tastes... tactile
sensations. A monk endowed with these five qualities is capable of
entering & remaining in right concentration. — AN V.113
§ 154. A monk
who has not abandoned these six qualities is incapable of entering
& remaining in the first jhana. Which six? Sensual desire, ill
will, sloth & drowsiness, restlessness & anxiety, uncertainty,
and not seeing well with right discernment, as they actually are
present, the drawbacks of sensual pleasures...
A monk who has not abandoned these six qualities is incapable of
entering & remaining in the first jhana. Which six? Thoughts of
sensuality, thoughts of ill will, thoughts of harmfulness, perceptions
of sensuality, perceptions of ill will, perceptions of harmfulness. — AN VI.73-74
§ 155. A monk
endowed with these six qualities is capable of mastering strength in
concentration. Which six?
There is the case where a monk is skilled in the attaining of
concentration, in the maintenance of concentration, & in the exit
from concentration. He is deliberate in doing it, persevering in doing
it, and amenable to doing it.
A monk endowed with these six qualities is capable of mastering
strength in concentration. — AN VI.72
§ 156. A monk
endowed with these six qualities could break through the Himalayas,
king of mountains, to say nothing of miserable ignorance. Which six?
There is the case where a monk is skilled in the attaining of
concentration, in the maintenance of concentration, in the exit from
concentration, in the [mind's] preparedness for concentration, in the
range of concentration, & in the application of concentration.
A monk endowed with these six qualities could break through the
Himalayas, king of mountains, to say nothing of miserable ignorance. — AN VI.24
§ 157. Imagine a
great pool of water to which there
comes a great bull elephant,
seven or seven and a half cubits tall. The thought occurs to him,
'What if I were to plunge into this pool of water, to amuse myself by
squirting water into my ears and along my back, and then to bathe
& drink & come back out & go off as I please.' So he
plunges into the pool of water, amuses himself by squirting water into
his ears and along his back, and then bathes & drinks & comes
back out & goes off as he pleases. Why is that? Because his large
body finds a footing in the depth.
Now suppose a rabbit or a cat
were to come along & think, 'What's the difference between me
& a bull elephant? What if I were to plunge into this pool of
water, to amuse myself by squirting water into my ears and along my
back, and then to bathe & drink & come back out & go off
as I please.' So he plunges rashly into the pool of water without
reflecting, and of him it can be expected that he will either sink to
the bottom or float away on the surface. Why is that? Because his
small body doesn't find a footing in the depth.
In the same way, whoever says, 'Without having attained
concentration, I will go live in solitude, in isolated wilderness
places,' of him it can be expected that he will either sink to the
bottom or float away on the surface. — AN X.99
§ 158. These are
the five rewards for one who practices walking meditation. Which five?
He can endure traveling by foot; he can endure exertion; he becomes
free from disease; whatever he has eaten & drunk, chewed &
savored, becomes well-digested; the concentration he wins while doing
walking meditation lasts for a long time. — AN V.29
§ 159. Distracting
Thoughts. When a monk is intent on the heightened mind, there are
five themes he should attend to at the appropriate times. Which five?
There is the case where evil, unskillful thoughts — connected
with desire, aversion, or delusion — arise in a monk while he is
referring to & attending to a particular theme. He should attend
to another theme, apart from that one, connected with what is
skillful. When he is attending to this other theme... those evil,
unskillful thoughts... are abandoned & subside. With their
abandoning, he steadies his mind right within, settles it, unifies it,
& concentrates it. Just as a skilled carpenter
or his apprentice would use a small peg to knock out, drive out, &
pull out a large one; in the same way... he steadies his mind right
within, settles it, unifies it, & concentrates it.
If evil, unskillful thoughts — connected with desire, aversion,
or delusion — still arise in the monk while he is attending to this
other theme, connected with what is skillful, he should scrutinize the
drawbacks of those thoughts: 'Truly, these thoughts of mine are
unskillful... blameworthy... these thoughts of mine result in stress.'
As he is scrutinizing their drawbacks... those evil, unskillful
thoughts... are abandoned & subside. With their abandoning, he
steadies his mind right within, settles it, unifies it, &
concentrates it. Just as a young
woman — or man — fond of adornment, would be horrified,
humiliated, & disgusted if the carcass of a snake or a dog or a
human being were hung from her neck; in the same way... the monk
steadies his mind right within, settles it, unifies it, &
concentrates it.
If evil, unskillful thoughts — connected with desire, aversion or
delusion — still arise in the monk while he is scrutinizing the
drawbacks of those thoughts, he should pay no mind & pay no
attention to those thoughts. As he is paying no mind & paying no
attention to them... those evil, unskillful thoughts are abandoned
& subside. With their abandoning, he steadies his mind right
within, settles it, unifies it, & concentrates it. Just as a man
with good eyes, not wanting to see forms that had come into range,
would close his eyes or look away; in the same way... the monk
steadies his mind right within, settles it, unifies it, &
concentrates it.
If evil, unskillful thoughts — connected with desire, aversion or
delusion — still arise in the monk while he is paying no mind &
paying no attention to those thoughts, he should attend to the
relaxing of thought-fabrication with regard to those thoughts. As he
is attending to the relaxing of thought-fabrication with regard to
those thoughts... those evil, unskillful thoughts are abandoned &
subside. With their abandoning, he steadies his mind right within,
settles it, unifies it, & concentrates it. Just as the thought
would occur to a man walking
quickly, 'Why am I walking quickly? Why don't I walk slowly?' So
he walks slowly. The thought occurs to him, 'Why am I walking slowly?
Why don't I stand?' So he stands. The thought occurs to him, 'Why am I
standing? Why don't I sit down?' So he sits down. The thought occurs
to him, 'Why am I sitting? Why don't I lie down?' So he lies down. In
this way, giving up the grosser posture, he takes up the more refined
one. In the same way... the monk steadies his mind right within,
settles it, unifies it, & concentrates it.
If evil, unskillful thoughts — connected with desire, aversion or
delusion — still arise in the monk while he is attending to the
relaxing of thought-fabrication with regard to those thoughts, then
— with his teeth clenched & his tongue pressed against the roof
of his mouth — he should beat down, constrain, & crush his mind
with his awareness. As — with his teeth clenched & his tongue
pressed against the roof of his mouth — he is beating down,
constraining, & crushing his mind with his awareness... those
evil, unskillful thoughts are abandoned & subside. With their
abandoning, he steadies his mind right within, settles it, unifies it,
& concentrates it. Just as a strong
man, seizing a weaker man by the head or the throat or the
shoulders, would beat him down, constrain, & crush him; in the
same way... the monk steadies his mind right within, settles it,
unifies it, & concentrates it.
Now when a monk... attending to another theme... scrutinizing the
drawbacks of those thoughts... paying no mind & paying no
attention to those thoughts... attending to the relaxing of
thought-fabrication with regard to those thoughts... beating down,
constraining & crushing his mind with his awareness... steadies
his mind right within, settles it, unifies it, & concentrates it:
He is then called a monk with mastery over the ways of thought
sequences. He thinks whatever thought he wants to, and doesn't think
whatever thought he doesn't. He has severed craving, thrown off the
fetters, and — through the right penetration of conceit — has made
an end of suffering & stress. — MN
20
§ 160. There are
these gross impurities in gold:
dirty sand, gravel, & grit. The dirt-washer or his apprentice,
having placed [the gold] in a vat, washes it again & again until
he has washed them away.
When he is rid of them, there remain the moderate impurities in the
gold: coarse sand & fine grit. He washes the gold again &
again until he has washed them away.
When he is rid of them, there remain the fine impurities in the
gold: fine sand & black dust. The dirt-washer or his apprentice
washes the gold again & again until he has washed them away.
When he is rid of them, there remains just the gold dust. The
goldsmith or his apprentice, having placed it in a crucible, blows on
it again & again to blow away the dross. The gold, as long as it
has not been blown on again & again to the point where the
impurities are blown away, as long as it is not refined & free
from dross, is not pliant, malleable, or luminous. It is brittle and
not ready to be worked. But there comes a time when the goldsmith or
his apprentice has blown on the gold again & again until the dross
is blown away. The gold... is then refined, free from dross, plaint,
malleable, & luminous. It is not brittle, and is ready to be
worked. Then whatever sort of ornament he has in mind — whether a
belt, an earring, a necklace, or a gold chain — the gold would serve
his purpose.
In the same way, there are these gross impurities in a monk intent
on heightened mind: misconduct in body, speech, & mind. These the
monk — aware & able by nature — abandons, destroys, dispels,
wipes out of existence. When he is rid of them, there remain in him
the moderate impurities: thoughts of sensuality, ill will, &
harmfulness. These he... wipes out of existence. When he is rid of
them there remain in him the fine impurities: thoughts of his caste,
thoughts of his home district, thoughts related to not wanting to be
despised. These he... wipes out of existence.
When he is rid of them, there remain only thoughts of the Dhamma.
His concentration is neither calm nor refined, it has not yet attained
serenity or unity, and is kept in place by the fabrication of forceful
restraint. But there comes a time when his mind grows steady inwardly,
settles down, grows unified & concentrated. His concentration is
calm & refined, has attained serenity & unity, and is no
longer kept in place by the fabrication of forceful restraint. Then
whichever of the six higher knowledges he turns his mind to know &
realize, he can witness them for himself whenever there is an
opening... [§64;
182] — AN III.100
§ 161. Ven.
Anuruddha: It has happened that, as we were remaining heedful, ardent,
& resolute, we perceived light & the vision of forms. But soon
after that the light disappeared, together with the vision of forms,
and we can't become attuned to that theme.
The Buddha: You should become attuned to that theme. Before my
Awakening, while I was still only an
unawakened Bodhisatta, I too perceived light & the vision of
forms, and soon after that the light disappeared, together with the
vision of forms. The thought occurred to me, 'What is the cause, what
is the reason, why the light disappeared, together with the vision of
forms?' Then it occurred to me, 'Uncertainty arose in me, and because
of the uncertainty my concentration fell away; when my concentration
fell away, the light disappeared together with the vision of forms. I
will act in such a way that uncertainty will not arise in me again.'
As I was remaining heedful, ardent, & resolute, I perceived
light & the vision of forms. But soon after that the light
disappeared, together with the vision of forms. The thought occurred
to me, 'What is the cause, what is the reason, why the light
disappeared, together with the vision of forms?' Then it occurred to
me, 'Inattention... sloth & drowsiness... fear... elation...
inertia arose in me, and because of the inattention... inertia my
concentration fell away; when my concentration fell away, the light
disappeared together with the vision of forms. I will act in such a
way that uncertainty, inattention, sloth & drowsiness, fear,
elation, & inertia will not arise in me again.'
As I was remaining heedful, ardent, & resolute... it occurred
to me, 'Excessive persistence [§66]
arose in me, and because of the excessive persistence my concentration
fell away; when my concentration fell away, the light disappeared
together with the vision of forms. Just as if a man
might hold a quail tightly with
both hands; it would die then & there. In the same way, excessive
persistence arose in me... I will act in such a way that
uncertainty... & excessive persistence will not arise in me
again.'
As I was remaining heedful, ardent, & resolute... it occurred
to me, 'Sluggish persistence [§66]
arose in me, and because of the sluggish persistence my concentration
fell away; when my concentration fell away, the light disappeared
together with the vision of forms. Just as if a man might hold a quail
loosely; it would fly out of his hand. In the same way, sluggish
persistence arose in me... I will act in such a way that
uncertainty... excessive & sluggish persistence will not arise in
me again.'
As I was remaining heedful, ardent, & resolute... it occurred
to me, 'Longing... the perception of multiplicity... excessive
absorption in forms arose in me, and because of the excessive
absorption in forms my concentration fell away; when my concentration
fell away, the light disappeared together with the vision of forms...
I will act in such a way that uncertainty... longing, the perception
of multiplicity, excessive absorption in forms will not arise in me
again.'
When I knew, 'Uncertainty is a defilement of the mind,' I abandoned
the uncertainty that was a defilement of the mind. (Similarly with
inattention, sloth & drowsiness, fear, elation, inertia, excessive
persistence, sluggish persistence, longing, the perception of
multiplicity, & excessive absorption in forms.)
As I was remaining heedful, ardent, & resolute, I perceived
light without seeing forms, or saw forms without perceiving light for
a whole day, a whole night, a whole day & night. The thought
occurred to me, 'What is the cause, what is the reason...?' Then it
occurred to me, 'When I attend to the theme of light without attending
to the theme of forms, I perceive light without seeing forms. When I
attend to the theme of forms without attending to the theme of light,
I see forms without seeing light for a whole day, a whole night, a
whole day & night.'
As I was remaining heedful, ardent, & resolute, I perceived
limited light & saw limited forms; I perceived unlimited light
& saw unlimited forms for a whole day, a whole night, a whole day
& night. The thought occurred to me, 'What is the cause, what is
the reason...?' Then it occurred to me, 'When my concentration is
limited, my sense of [inner] vision is limited. When my concentration
is unlimited, my sense of [inner] vision is unlimited. With an
unlimited sense of vision I perceive unlimited light & see
unlimited forms for a whole day, a whole night, a whole day &
night'...
'I have abandoned those defilements of the mind. Let me develop
concentration in three ways.' So [1] I developed concentration with
directed thought & evaluation. I developed concentration without
directed thought but with a modicum of evaluation. I developed
concentration without directed thought or evaluation. [2] I developed
concentration with rapture... without rapture... [3] I developed
concentration accompanied by enjoyment... accompanied by equanimity.
When my concentration with directed thought & evaluation was
developed, when my concentration without directed thought but with a
modicum of evaluation... without directed thought or evaluation...
with rapture... without rapture... accompanied by enjoyment...
accompanied by equanimity was developed, then the knowledge &
vision arose in me: 'My release is unprovoked. This is my last birth.
There is no further becoming.'
That was what the Blessed One said. Satisfied, Ven. Anuruddha
delighted in the Blessed One's words. — MN 128
§ 162. Skill in
concentration. Suppose there was a mountain
cow — foolish, inexperienced, unfamiliar with her pasture,
unskilled in roaming on rugged mountains — and she were to think,
'What if I were to go in a direction I have never gone before, to eat
grass I have never eaten before, to drink water I have never drunk
before!' She would lift her hind hoof without having placed her front
hoof firmly and [as a result] would not get to go in a direction she
had never gone before, to eat grass she had never eaten before, or to
drink water she had never drunk before. And as for the place where she
was standing when the thought occurred to her, 'What if I were to go
where I have never been before... to drink water I have never drunk
before,' she would not return there safely. Why is that? Because she
is a foolish, inexperienced mountain cow, unfamiliar with her pasture,
unskilled in roaming on rugged mountains.
In the same way, there are cases where a monk — foolish,
inexperienced, unfamiliar with his pasture, unskilled in... entering
& remaining in the first jhana: rapture & pleasure born from
withdrawal, accompanied by directed thought & evaluation —
doesn't stick with that theme, doesn't develop it, pursue it, or
establish himself firmly in it. The thought occurs to him, 'What if I,
with the stilling of directed thought & evaluation, were to enter
& remain in the second jhana: rapture & pleasure born of
composure, unification of awareness free from directed thought &
evaluation — internal assurance.' He is not able... to enter &
remain in the second jhana... The thought occurs to him, 'What if I...
were to enter & remain in the first jhana... He is not able... to
enter & remain in the first jhana. This is called a monk who has
slipped & fallen from both sides, like the mountain cow, foolish,
inexperienced, unfamiliar with her pasture, unskilled in roaming on
rugged mountains.
But suppose there was a mountain cow — wise, experienced,
familiar with her pasture, skilled in roaming on rugged mountains —
and she were to think, 'What if I were to go in a direction I have
never gone before, to eat grass I have never eaten before, to drink
water I have never drunk before!' She would lift her hind hoof only
after having placed her front hoof firmly and [as a result] would get
to go in a direction she had never gone before... to drink water she
had never drunk before. And as for the place where she was standing
when the thought occurred to her, 'What if I were to go in a direction
I have never gone before... to drink water I have never drunk before,'
she would return there safely. Why is that? Because she is a wise,
experienced mountain cow, familiar with her pasture, skilled in
roaming on rugged mountains.
In the same way, there are some cases where a monk — wise,
experienced, familiar with his pasture, skilled in... entering &
remaining in the first jhana... sticks with that theme, develops it,
pursues it, & establishes himself firmly in it. The thought occurs
to him, 'What if I... were to enter & remain in the second jhana...'
Without jumping at the second jhana, he — with the stilling of
directed thought & evaluation — enters & remains in the
second jhana. He sticks with that theme, develops it, pursues it,
& establishes himself firmly in it. The thought occurs to him,
'What if I... were to enter & remain in the third jhana'...
Without jumping at the third jhana, he... enters & remains in the
third jhana. He sticks with that theme, develops it, pursues it, &
establishes himself firmly in it. The thought occurs to him, 'What if
I... were to enter & remain in the fourth jhana'... Without
jumping at the fourth jhana, he... enters & remains in the fourth
jhana. He sticks with that theme, develops it, pursues it, &
establishes himself firmly in it.
The thought occurs to him, 'What if I, with the complete
transcending of perceptions of [physical] form, with the disappearance
of perceptions of resistance, and not heeding perceptions of
diversity, thinking, "Infinite space," were to enter &
remain in the dimension of the infinitude of space.' Without jumping
at the dimension of the infinitude of space, he... enters &
remains in dimension of the infinitude of space. He sticks with that
theme, develops it, pursues it, & establishes himself firmly in
it.
The thought occurs to him, 'What if I, with the complete
transcending of the dimension of the infinitude of space, thinking,
"Infinite consciousness," were to enter & remain in the
dimension of the infinitude of consciousness.' Without jumping at the
dimension of the infinitude of consciousness, he... enters &
remains in dimension of the infinitude of consciousness. He sticks
with that theme, develops it, pursues it, & establishes himself
firmly in it.
The thought occurs to him, 'What if I, with the complete
transcending of the dimension of the infinitude of consciousness,
thinking, "There is nothing," were to enter & remain in
the dimension of nothingness.' Without jumping at the dimension of
nothingness, he... enters & remains in dimension of nothingness.
He sticks with that theme, develops it, pursues, it & establishes
himself firmly in it.
The thought occurs to him, 'What if I, with the complete
transcending of the dimension of nothingness, were to enter &
remain in the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception.'
Without jumping at the dimension of neither perception nor
non-perception, he... enters & remains in the dimension of neither
perception nor non-perception. He sticks with that theme, develops it,
pursues it, & establishes himself firmly in it.
The thought occurs to him, 'What if I, with the complete
transcending of the dimension of neither perception nor
non-perception, were to enter & remain in the cessation of
perception & feeling.' Without jumping at the cessation of
perception & feeling, he... enters & remains in the cessation
of perception & feeling.
When a monk enters & emerges from that very attainment, his
mind is pliant & malleable. With his pliant, malleable mind,
limitless concentration is well developed. With his well developed,
limitless concentration, then whichever of the six higher knowledges
he turns his mind to know & realize, he can witness them for
himself whenever there is an opening. — AN
IX.35
§ 163. Guided by
the elephant trainer, the
elephant to be tamed goes only in one direction: east, west, north, or
south... Guided by the Tathagata... the person to be tamed goes in
eight directions. Possessed of form, he sees forms. This is the first
direction. Not percipient of form internally, he sees forms
externally. This is the second direction. He is intent only on the
beautiful. This is the third direction. With the complete transcending
of perceptions of [physical] form, with the disappearance of
perceptions of resistance, and not heeding perceptions of diversity,
thinking, 'Infinite space,' he enters & remains in the dimension
of the infinitude of space. This is the fourth direction. With the
complete transcending of the dimension of the infinitude of space,
thinking, 'Infinite consciousness,' he enters & remains in the
dimension of the infinitude of consciousness. This is the fifth
direction. He... enters & remains in the dimension of nothingness.
This is the sixth direction. He... enters & remains in the
dimension of neither perception nor non-perception. This is the
seventh direction. With the complete transcending of the dimension of
neither perception nor non-perception, he enters & remains in the
cessation of perception & feeling. This is the eighth direction. — MN
137
§ 164. 'There
are these seven properties. Which seven? The property of light, the
property of beauty, the property of the dimension of the infinitude of
space, the property of the dimension of the infinitude of
consciousness, the property of the dimension of nothingness, the
property of the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception,
the property of the dimension of the cessation of feeling &
perception. These are the seven properties.'
When this was said, a certain monk addressed the Blessed One:
'...In dependence on what are these properties discerned?'
'The property of light is discerned in dependence on darkness. The
property of beauty is discerned in dependence on the unattractive. The
property of the dimension of the infinitude of space is discerned in
dependence on form. The property of the dimension of the infinitude of
consciousness is discerned in dependence on the dimension of the
infinitude of space. The property of the dimension of nothingness is
discerned in dependence on the dimension of the infinitude of
consciousness. The property of the dimension of neither perception nor
non-perception is discerned in dependence on the dimension of
nothingness. The property of the dimension of the cessation of feeling
& perception is discerned in dependence on cessation.'
'...And how, lord, is the attainment of these properties to be
reached?'
'The property of light, the property of beauty, the property of the
dimension of the infinitude of space, the property of the dimension of
the infinitude of consciousness, the property of the dimension of
nothingness: These properties are to be reached as perception
attainments. The property of the dimension of neither perception nor
non-perception is to be reached as a what-remains-of fabrications
attainment. The property of the dimension of the cessation of feeling
& perception is to be reached as a cessation attainment.' — SN XIII.11
We noted in II/A
that some of the sets in the Wings to Awakening list jhana as a
condition for discernment, while others list discernment as a
condition for jhana. Place both of these patterns into the context of
this/that conditionality, and they convey the point that jhana and
discernment in practice are mutually supporting. Passage §171
states this point explicitly, while §165
and §166 show that the difference between
the two causal patterns relates to differences in meditators: some
develop strong powers of concentration before developing strong
discernment, whereas others gain a sound theoretical understanding of
the Dhamma before developing strong concentration. In either case,
both strong concentration and sound discernment are needed to bring
about Awakening. Passage §111
makes the point that when the practice reaches the culmination of its
development, concentration and discernment act in concert. The
passages in this section deal with this topic in more detail.
The role of jhana as a
condition for transcendent discernment is one of the most
controversial issues in the Theravada tradition. Three basic positions
have been advanced in modern writings. One, following the commentarial
tradition, asserts that jhana is not necessary for any of the four
levels of Awakening and that there is a class of individuals —
called "dry insight" meditators — who are "released
through discernment" based on a level of concentration lower than
that of jhana. A second position, citing a passage in the Canon [AN
III.88; MFU,
pp. 103] stating that concentration is mastered only on the level
of nonreturning, holds that
jhana is necessary for the attainment of nonreturning and arahantship,
but not for the lower levels of Awakening. The third position states
that the attainment of at least the first level of jhana is essential
for all four levels of Awakening.
Evidence from the Canon supports the third position, but not the
other two. As §106
points out, the attainment of stream-entry
has eight factors, one of which is right concentration, defined as
jhana. In fact, according to this particular discourse, jhana is the
heart of the streamwinner's path. Secondly, there is no passage in the
Canon describing the development of transcendent discernment without
at least some skill in jhana. The statement that concentration is
mastered only on the level of nonreturning must be interpreted in the
light of the distinction between mastery and attainment. A
streamwinner may have attained jhana without mastering it; the
discernment developed in the process of gaining full mastery over the
practice of jhana will then lead him/her to the level of nonreturning.
As for the term "released through discernment," passage §168
shows that it denotes people who have become arahants without
experiencing the four formless jhanas. It does not indicate a person
who has not experienced jhana.
Part of the controversy over this question may be explained by the
fact that the in terms that bear little resemblance to
the canonical description. The Path of Purification — the
cornerstone of the commentarial system — takes as its paradigm for
meditation practice a method called kasina,
in which one stares at an external object until the image of the
object is imprinted in one's mind. The image then gives rise to a
countersign that is said to indicate the attainment of threshold
concentration, a necessary prelude to jhana. The text then tries to
fit all other meditation methods into the mold of kasina practice, so
that they too give rise to countersigns, but even by its own
admission, breath meditation does not fit well into the mold: with
other methods, the stronger one's focus, the more vivid the object and
the closer it is to producing a sign and countersign; but with the
breath, the stronger one's focus, the harder the object is to detect.
As a result, the text states that only Buddhas and Buddhas' sons find
the breath a congenial focal point for attaining jhana.
None of these assertions have any support in the Canon. Although a
practice called kasina is mentioned tangentially in some of the
discourses, the only point where it is described in any detail [MN
121; MFU,
pp. 82-85] makes no mention of staring at an object or gaining a
countersign. If breath meditation were congenial only to Buddhas and
their sons, there seems little reason for the Buddha to have taught it
so frequently and to such a wide variety of people. If the arising of
a countersign were essential to the attainment of jhana, one would
expect it to be included in the steps of breath meditation and in the
graphic analogies used to describe jhana, but it isn't. Some
Theravadins insist that questioning the commentaries is a sign of
disrespect for the tradition, but it seems to be a sign of greater
disrespect for the Buddha — or the compilers of the Canon — to
assume that he or they would have left out something absolutely
essential to the practice.
All of these points seem to indicate that what jhana means in the
commentaries is something quite different from what it means in the
Canon. Because of this difference we can say that the commentaries are
right in viewing their type of jhana as unnecessary for Awakening, but
Awakening cannot occur without the attainment of jhana in the
canonical sense.
We have already given a sketch in the preceding section of how
jhana in its canonical sense can act as the basis for transcendent
discernment. To recapitulate: On attaining any of the first seven
levels of jhana, one may step back slightly from the object of jhana
— entering the fifth factor of noble right concentration [§150] —
to perceive how the mind relates to the object. In doing this, one
sees the process of causation as it plays a role in bringing the mind
to jhana, together with the various mental acts of fabrication that go
into keeping it there [§182]. Passage §172 lists these acts in
considerable detail. The fact that the passage emphasizes the amazing
abilities of Sariputta, the Buddha's foremost disciple in terms of
discernment, implies that there is no need for every meditator to
perceive all these acts in such a detailed fashion. What is essential
is that one develop a sense of dispassion for the state of jhana,
seeing that even the relatively steady sense of refined pleasure and
equanimity it provides is artificial and willed, inconstant and
stressful [§182], a state fabricated from many different events, and
thus not worth identifying with. Jhana thus becomes an ideal test case
for understanding the workings of kamma and dependent co-arising in
the mind. Its stability gives discernment a firm basis for seeing
clearly; its refined sense of pleasure and equanimity allow the mind
to realize that even the most refined mundane states involve the
inconstancy and stress common to all willed phenomena. Passage §167
lists a number of verbal mental acts surrounding the exercise of
supranormal powers that can be regarded in a similar light, as topics
to be analyzed so as to give rise to a sense of dispassion. The
dispassion that results in either case enables one to experience the
fading away and cessation of the last remaining activities in the
mind, even the activity of discernment itself. When this process fully
matures, it leads on to total relinquishment, resulting in the clear
knowing and release of arahantship.
In contrast to the issue of the role of jhana as a condition for
discernment, the role of discernment as a condition for jhana is
uncontroversial. Discernment aids jhana on two levels: mundane and
transcendent. On the mundane level, it enables one to perceive the
various factors that go into one's state of jhana so that one can
master them and shed the factors that prevent one from attaining a
higher level of jhana. This again involves the reflection that
constitutes the fifth factor of noble
right concentration, but in this case the results stay on the
mundane level. For instance, as one masters the first level of jhana
and can reflect on the elements of stress it contains, one may
perceive that directed thought and evaluation should be abandoned
because they have become unnecessary in maintaining one's
concentration, just as the forms used in pouring a cement wall become
unnecessary when the cement has hardened. In dropping these factors,
one then goes on to the second level of jhana. Passage §175
gives a list of the factors that, in succession, are dropped in this
way as one attains higher and higher levels of concentration.
On the transcendent level, the discernment that precipitates
Awakening results in a supramundane level of jhana called the fruit of
gnosis, which is described in §§176-77 — a type of jhana
independent of all perceptions (mental labels) and intentional
processes, beyond all limitations of cosmos, time, and the present:
the arahant's foretaste, in this lifetime, of the absolutely total
Unbinding experienced by the awakened mind at death.
Passages from
the Pali Canon
§ 165.
These four types of individuals are to be found existing in world.
Which four?
There is the case of the individual who has attained internal
tranquillity of awareness, but not insight into phenomena through
heightened discernment. There is... the individual who has attained
insight into phenomena through heightened discernment, but not
internal tranquillity of awareness. There is... the individual who has
attained neither internal tranquillity of awareness nor insight into
phenomena through heightened discernment. And there is... the
individual who has attained both internal tranquillity of awareness
& insight into phenomena through heightened discernment.
The individual who has attained internal tranquillity of awareness,
but not insight into phenomena through heightened discernment, should
approach an individual who has attained insight into phenomena through
heightened discernment... and ask him: 'How should fabrications be
regarded? How should they be investigated? How should they be seen
with insight?' The other will answer in line with what he has seen
& experienced: 'Fabrications should be regarded in this way...
investigated in this way... seen in this way with insight.' Then
eventually he [the first] will become one who has attained both
internal tranquillity of awareness & insight into phenomena
through heightened discernment.
As for the individual who has attained insight into phenomena
through heightened discernment, but not internal tranquillity of
awareness, he should approach an individual who has attained internal
tranquillity of awareness... and ask him, 'How should the mind be
steadied? How should it be made to settle down? How should it be
unified? How should it be concentrated?' The other will answer in line
with what he has seen & experienced: 'The mind should be steadied
in this way... made to settle down in this way... unified in this
way... concentrated in this way.' Then eventually he [the first] will
become one who has attained both internal tranquillity of awareness
& insight into phenomena through heightened discernment.
As for the individual who has attained neither internal
tranquillity of awareness nor insight into phenomena through
heightened discernment, he should approach an individual who has
attained both internal tranquillity of awareness & insight into
phenomena through heightened discernment... and ask him, 'How should
the mind be steadied? How should it be made to settle down? How should
it be unified? How should it be concentrated? How should fabrications
be regarded? How should they be investigated? How should they be seen
with insight?' The other will answer in line with what he has seen
& experienced: 'The mind should be steadied in this way... made to
settle down in this way... unified in this way... concentrated in this
way. Fabrications should be regarded in this way... investigated in
this way... seen in this way with insight.' Then eventually he [the
first] will become one who has attained both internal tranquillity of
awareness & insight into phenomena through heightened discernment.
As for the individual who has attained both internal tranquillity
of awareness & insight into phenomena through heightened
discernment, his duty is to make an effort in establishing ('tuning')
those very same skillful qualities to a higher degree for the ending
of the effluents. — AN
IV.94
§ 166. Ven.
Ananda: Whenever a monk or nun declares the attainment of arahantship
in my presence, they all do it by means of one or another of four
paths. Which four?
There is the case where a monk has developed insight preceded by
tranquillity. As he develops insight preceded by tranquillity, the
path is born. He follows that path, develops it, pursues it. As he
follows the path, developing it & pursuing it — his fetters are
abandoned, his obsessions destroyed.
Furthermore, there is the case where a monk has developed
tranquillity preceded by insight. As he develops tranquillity preceded
by insight, the path is born. He follows that path... His fetters are
abandoned, his obsessions destroyed.
Furthermore, there is the case where a monk has developed
tranquillity & insight in concert. As he develops tranquillity
& insight in concert, the path is born. He follows that path...
His fetters are abandoned, his obsessions destroyed.
Furthermore, there is the case where a monk's mind has its
restlessness concerning the Dhamma [Comm: the corruptions of insight]
well under control. There comes a time when his mind grows steady
inwardly, settles down, and becomes unified & concentrated. In him
the path is born. He follows that path... His fetters are abandoned,
his obsessions destroyed.
Whenever a monk or nun declares the attainment of arahantship in my
presence, they all do it by means of one or another of these four
paths. — AN
IV.170
§ 167. Then Ven.
Anuruddha went to where Ven. Sariputta
was staying and, on arrival, greeted him courteously. After an
exchange of friendly greetings & courtesies, he sat to one side.
As he was sitting there, he said to Ven. Sariputta: By means of the
divine eye, purified & surpassing the human, I see the
thousand-fold cosmos. My persistence is aroused & unsluggish. My
mindfulness is established & unshaken. My body is calm &
unaroused. My mind is concentrated into singleness. And yet my mind is
not released from the effluents through lack of clinging/sustenance.
Sariputta: My friend, when the thought occurs to you, 'By means of
the divine eye, purified & surpassing the human, I see the
thousand-fold cosmos,' that is related to your conceit. When the
thought occurs to you, 'My persistence is aroused & unsluggish. My
mindfulness is established & unshaken. My body is calm &
unperturbed. My mind is concentrated into singleness,' that is related
to your restlessness. When the thought occurs to you, 'And yet my mind
is not released from the effluents through lack of
clinging/sustenance,' that is related to your anxiety. It would be
well if — abandoning these three qualities, not attending to these
three qualities — you directed your mind to the Deathless property.'
So after that, Ven.
Anuruddha — abandoning those three qualities, not attending to those
three qualities — directed his mind to the Deathless property.
Dwelling alone, secluded, heedful, ardent, & resolute, he in no
long time reached & remained in the supreme goal of the holy life
for which clansmen rightly go forth from home into homelessness,
knowing & realizing it for himself in the here & now. He knew:
'Birth is ended, the holy life fulfilled, the task done. There is
nothing further for the sake of this world.' And thus Ven. Anuruddha
became another one of the arahants. — AN III.128
§ 168. And what
is an individual released in both ways? There is the case of the
individual who remains touching with his body the peaceful
liberations, the formlessnesses bey |
